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F » A V ^e 






THE SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING 

SPECIAL SUPERVISION IN THE 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE 

UNITED STATES 



BY 
WALTER ALBERT JESSUP, Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, INDIANA UNIVERSITY 

SOMETIME FELLOW IN EDUCATION, 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION, NO. 43 



PUBLISHED BY 

QkarlfrrB (Soltegr, (Columbia Uniwrattg 

NEW YORK CITY 

1911 



^0 






Copyright 1911, by Walter Albert Jessup 



V 



i CI. A 2!).-, ()S 9 



PREFACE 

This study was undertaken in connection with a course in 
Educational Sociology under Professor Henry Suzzallo, and to 
him I owe my greatest debt of gratitude for continuous encour- 
agement and helpful criticism. 

Grateful acknowledgment is also due to Professors Thorndike, 
Strayer and Monroe for assistance rendered, and to the hun- 
dreds of school superintendents and supervisors throughout the 
United States, who responded so promptly to the requests for 
data. 

I am also deeply indebted to my friend, Dr. Lotus Delta Coff- 
man, for many helpful suggestions and much sympathetic coun- 
sel, and to my wife for constant inspiration and untiring effort 
in tabulating data and revising the manuscript. 

WALTER ALBERT JESSUP 
Bloomington, Indiana 
April, 191 1 



CONTENTS 

Chapter page 

I. INTRODUCTION i 

Statement of problem. — Method. 

II. MUSIC 4 

Attitude of Early Puritans. — Attempts at improvement. — 
Agitation for singing school. — Development of choir. — 
Reaction against choir. — Growth in popular interest in 
music. — Music as a Common School subject. — Boston 
Academy of Music. — Results. — Sanction. — Actual intro- 
duction in Boston. — Influence of the Academy of Music. 
— Lack of permanent success. — Agitation elsewhere. — Re- 
ligious pressure. — Attitude within the school. — Statement 
of a leader in Public School music. — Intellectual value 
dominant. — Formal discipline. — Administrative means 
used. — Summary. 

III. DRAWING 18 

Early indifference. — Scattering attempts at drawing in- 
struction. — Insufficient pressure to insure persistent atten- 
tion. — Economic value of drawing. — English influence. — 
Meagre results. — Divergent points of view. — Effects of 
Paris Exhibit of 1867. — Result of petition. — Transfer 

of English leader. — Industrial nature of drawing. — At- 
tempts elsewhere. — Impetus given by Centennial Exposi- 
tion. — Varying conceptions. — Reception within the school. 
— Neglect on part of regular teachers. — Difficulty in stick- 
ing to industrial purpose. — Intellectual value uppermost. — 
Mental discipline in drawing. — Plan in administration. — 
Summary. 

IV. MANUAL TRAINING 32 

Social and economic changes. — Relation of manual train- 
ing to drawing. — Centennial Exposition. — Beginnings of 
Technical Education. — Secondary manual training schools 
supported by economic forces. — Humanitarian activities. — 
Practical nature of instruction in charity schools. — 
Kitchen Garden movement — Industrial Education As- 
sociation. — Pressure for manual training in New York 
City. — Introduction in New York schools. — Training 
schools for teachers. — Spread of influence. — Private in- 
struction in Boston. — Boston school committee assumes 
responsibility. — Forces outside of school back of manual 
training movement. — Opposition of teachers. — Relation of 
kindergarten movement to manual training movement. — 
Attitude of Felix Adler. — Attitude of Nicholas Murray 
Butler. — Estimate by Commissioner Dawson. — Manual 
training interpreted in the light of intellectual tradition 

of school. — Attitude of Charles W. Eliot and others. — 
Refraction of outside pressure within the school. — Ad- 
ministration. — Summary. 



vi Contents 

PAGE 

V. DOMESTIC SCIENCE 51 

Decline of Home Industries.' — New opportunities for 
women outside the home. — Early attempt to meet the 
situation. — Early sanction. — Relation of sewing to in- 
dustrial art drawing. — Private support in Boston. — Rela- 
tion of sewing to manual training. — Spread of influence. 
— Private initiative in cooking schools of Boston. — 
— Private initiative in cooking schools of Philadelphia. — 
Modification after fusion with manual training move- 
ment. — Attitude of the school toward domestic science. — 
Intellectual value emphasized. — Sewing and cooking less 
refracted by school room traditions than manual training, 
— Administration. — Summary. 

VI. PHYSICAL EDUCATION 64 

Early attitude. — Exercise through work. — Jefferson's mili- 
tary ideal. — Military academies. — German gymnastics.' — 
Fellenberg movement. — Physiology and hygiene. — De- 
mand for school exercise. — Dio Lewis as a leader. — 
Spread of the Lewis system. — Decline of interest. — Rise 
of German influence. — Results of the activity of Turners. 
— Cincinnati as a type. — Other organizations contributed. 
— Private initiative in Boston. — Union of forces produced 
wave of enthusiasm. — Reception within the school. — 
Physical exercise in place of the recess period. — Physical 
exercise as a training of the will.' — Refraction of demand 
within the school. — Administration. — Summary. 

VII. PENMANSHIP 78 

Early religious sanction for reading and writing schools. 
— Writing less important than reading. — Traditional 
means of instruction in writing. — Commercial sanction. — 
Double-headed system of instruction. — Pressure brought 
to bear on regular teachers. — Decline of writing schools. 
— Attitude of school. — Administration. — Summary. 

VIII. DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIALISTS 86 

Spread of the practice of employing supervisors. — Method 
of distribution. — Sources of information. — Limitations.' — 
Table 1, Distribution of specialists for music, drawing, 
penmanship in 1875. — Table 2, same for 1885. — Table 3, 
same for 1908. — Table 4, Distribution of specialists of 
manual training, domestic science and sewing, 1893. — 
Table 5, same for 1908. — Table 6, Distribution of 
specialists in physical education, 1893. — Table 7, same for 
1908. — Table 8, Summary. 

IX. SALARIES 97 

Sources of information. — Method of tabulation. — Table 

9, Distribution of salaries of specialists of music. — Table 

10, same for drawing. — Table 11, same for penmanship. — 
Table 12, same for manual training. — Table 13, same for 
domestic science and sewing. — Table 14, same for physi- 
cal education; — Table 15, Summary. 

X. SEX SELECTION 106 

Source of information and method of treatment. — Table 
16, (a) Distribution of men and women by subjects and 
location. — (b) Percentage of women specialists distrib- 
uted by subjects and location. 



Contents vii 

PAGE 

XI. DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITY 10S 

Source of information. — Table 17, (1) Showing difference 
in division of responsibility. — (2) Combining irrespec- 
tive of size of city. — (3) Percentage of cities following 
plan C. — Discussion. — Summary. 

XII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 112 

Sanctions. — Origin of demand. — Typical ways in which 
new subject matter became part of the curriculum. — 
Refraction within schoolrooms. — Spread of the prac- 
tice. — Salaries. — Sex. — Division of Responsibility. 

Appendix 

I. INFORMATION CARD 118 

II. TABULATION SHEET 119 

III. BIBLIOGRAPHY 120 



THE SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING 
SPECIAL SUPERVISION 

CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

The increase in the number of subjects for instruction in the 
public school curriculum within recent years has been marked. 
Many of these subjects have been introduced into the schools 
by means of special teachers or supervisors. The administra- 
tive adjustment to this situation has been accompanied by no 
little difficulty. Special teachers and supervisors have multiplied 
until it is no uncommon thing to find a single city employing 
such specialists in a half dozen subjects, including music, draw- 
ing, physical education, manual training, domestic science and 
penmanship. 

This involves not only an enormous expenditure of money 
but other complications arise in the matter of the adjustment 
of the time schedules for inspection and instruction and in the 
division of responsibility for instruction in these various sub- 
jects. Indeed the whole problem of the administration of these 
so-called special subjects is by no means the least difficult of 
the tasks which fall to the lot of the school superintendent. 

Statement of Problem 

It is with appreciation of the importance of the problem that 
the present study has been undertaken. This study does not 
include all or any considerable number of the phases of the sub- 
ject; rather it is an attempt to clear the ground and to provide 
data for a continued investigation which might safely lead to 
constructive conclusions relative to administrative policy. It 
has seemed wise to confine the investigation within the follow- 
ing limits : (a) to find sanctions back of the demand for the 
introduction of these subjects most commonly thought of in con- 



2 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

nection with special teaching or supervision, namely, music, 
drawing, manual training, domestic science, physical education, 
sewing and penmanship ; (b) to ascertain if possible whether 
the demand for these subjects came from within the school itself 
or whether it came from the school group outside; (c) to 
point out certain typical ways in which the new subject matter 
became a part of the curriculum; (d) to determine the effect 
of the traditions of the school on the interpretation of the new 
subject matter; (e) to determine certain quantitative aspects 
of the problem including the distribution of specialists, for sub- 
ject, location, salary, sex and method. 

Method 

With these problems thus stated it can be seen that this study r 
can not be confined to the single field of statistical inquiry; / 
rather there is needed enough of history to furnish a genetic 
view and enough of the quantitative treatment to indicate the 
present situation and tendency, plus such critical interpretation 
as the facts seem to warrant. Owing to the social nature of 
these problems the expressed opinions of the leaders in the 
various movements have peculiar value in throwing light on the 
forces that were operative in bringing about the introduction 
of these subjects. For as Commissioner Brown says, " The 
man who inaugurates a new movement in human history is one 
who gives expression to what many have been thinking more 
or less clearly." 1 

As a consequence of this demand for knowledge of the opinion 
of leaders, it has been necessary to direct especial attention to 
the words of these leaders in connection with the various or- 
ganizations of school people, as the American Institute of In- 
struction and the National Education Association. Likewise 
the reports of the leaders to their local boards and to the United 
States Commissioner of Education, have been significant in 
revealing attitudes toward the subjects under discussion. 

Commissioner Brown has called attention to the universal 
prominence of Massachusetts in the matter of educational lead- 
ership thus, " whenever an illustration of some good educational 
movement is needed, Massachusetts appears with a conspicuous 

1 Making of Our Middle Schools, 9. 



Introduction 3 

example. At almost every call her hand goes up among the 
first." 2 

The rapidity with which the North Atlantic and the North 
Central States have adopted the custom of employing special 
teachers and supervisors indicates their leadership in this par- 
ticular, 3 and is a justification for the apparent predominance of 
attention to certain centers of influence within this group. 

2 Ibid., viii. 

8 See Tables I to VIII. 



CHAPTER II 

MUSIC 

Attitude of Early Puritans toward Music 

Although music is an " old " subject in the history of educa- 
tion, its introduction into the public school curriculum came 
relatively late. When the reading and writing schools and the 
grammar schools were being established in the colonial period, 
music was the subject of a bitter controversy. This was most 
apparent in the New England section where religious feeling 
was such a strong factor in shaping the institutions. The con- 
tinuous and far reaching influence of this section on the edu- 
cational affairs of the country warrants a clear study of this 
situation. 

When the Puritans revolted they included music in its exist- 
ing forms in the list of things to be rejected: " They destroyed 
organs, music books, dissolved church choirs and chased musi- 
cians from the church gallery." 1 

Attempts at Improvement 

It was with difficulty that the clergy was able to convince 
our New England forefathers that singing in any form was 
other than sinful. Even granting that there might be a Scrip- 
tural sanction for psalm singing there remained other questions 
for grave dispute; for example, the wisdom of allowing Chris- 
tians only to sing, the assembly joining in the silence and 
responding Amen. Meanwhile the skill in singing steadily de- 
clined until sensitive ears were shocked beyond endurance. Rev. 
Thomas Symmes of Bradford. Massachusetts, wrote in 1720, 
" It is with great difficulty that this part of the worship is per- 
formed, and with great indecency in some congregations for 
want of skill ; it is to be feared singing must be wholly omitted 
in some places for want of skill, if this art is not revived. 

1 Quoted from Ritter, Music in America, 4. 

4 ' 



Music 5 

The rules of singing not being taught or learnt, everyone sang 
as best pleased himself, and every leading singer would take 
the liberty to raise any note of the tune or lower it as best 
pleased his ear; and add such turns and flourishes as were 
grateful to him; and this was done so gradually that few, if 
any, took notice of it." 2 

In the latter part of the seventeenth and the beginning of the 
eighteenth century the knowledge of tunes was so limited that 
it was an exception to find a congregation able to sing more 
than three or four tunes. The leading clergymen, includ- 
ing Mather, Edwards, Dwight, Symmes, Wise, Eliot, Walter, 
and Stoddard were aggressive in their effort to bring about an 
improvement. However, this was strongly opposed by the con- 
gregation. In 1723, a number of these ministers united in the 
preparation of a tract called " Cases of Conscience about sing- 
ing Psalms briefly considered and resolved." In this they set 
forth a number of questions that had been disturbing the peace 
of the communities. The following is suggestive of their treat- 
ment : " Is it possible for Fathers forty years old and upwards 
to learn to sing by rule? And ought they attempt at that age 
to learn ? . . . Whether they who purposely sing a tune dif- 
ferent from that which is appointed by the pastor, or elder to 
be sung, are not guilty of acting disorderly, and taking God's 
name in vain also, by disturbing the order of the sanctuary." 3 

Agitation for Singing School 

The following quotation from the tract of Rev. Thomas 
Symmes written the same year throws additional light on the 
situation : " I have used my best endeavours, according to the 
measure God has given me, to prevent the rise and afterwards 
the progress of such an unhappy controversy in this place, yet 
there has been a great deal of contention and uneasiness amongst 
us, about the Singing by rule and I perceive there are some yet 
dissatisfied. Now it being my purpose to encourage singing 
meetings in the town in the long Winter evenings, — and thot 
it prudence to make another essay introductory to my setting 

2 Hood, History of Music in New England, 88. 

3 Quoted from Hood, History of Music in New England, 87. See also 
Elson, National Music in America, 49. 



6 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

forward such a laudable practice that it might then be possible 
to ease the minds of all amongst us that remain dissatisfied on 
this score. . . . As to getting money by it — why the singing- 
master is not worthy of his reward for his pains in teaching 
our children to sing, as well as the school dame or schoolmaster, 
for teaching our children to read, write and cypher, I cannot 
devise. For musick is as real and as lawful and ingenious an 
art as either of the other. I don't say as useful and neces- 
sary." 4 

Reference has already been made to the attempt to start sing- 
ing schools in order that the desired knowledge and skill might 
be attained. Concerning this Rev. Symmes in a letter written 
1723 said: "Would it not greatly tend to promote singing of 
psalms if singing schools were promoted? Would we not thus be 
conforming to scripture pattern? Have we not as much need for 
these as God's people of old? Have we any reason to expect 
to be inspired with the gift of singing, any more than that of 
reading? . . . Where would be the difficulty or what the 
disadvantages if people who want skill in singing, would pro- 
cure skillful persons to instruct them, and meet two or three 
evenings in the week from five or six o'clock to eight and spend 
the time learning to sing. Would it not be proper for school 
masters in country parishes to teach their scholars? Are they 
not very unwise who plead against learning to sing by rule, 
when they can't learn to sing at all unless they learn by rule? 
Has not the grand enemy of Souls a hand in this who prejudices 
them against the best means of singing?" 5 

The opposition gave way in the presence of such persistent 
onslaughts of the clergy. With the spread of the new practice 
in singing by rule the singing-school became a necessity. Con- 
cerning this Mr. John Curriven says : " The controversy which 
ended in the introduction of new tunes developed the necessity 
of the singing school. On the ruins of the old Psalmody the 
singing school took its rise and from this time New England 
Psalmody began to advance. Singing schools which began about 
1720 became quite common from Maine to Georgia at the begin- 
ning of the seventeenth century." 6 

4 Quoted from Ritter, Music in America, 15. 

5 Ibid., 28. 

6 Quoted from Worship Music, 117. 



Music 7 

Development of Choir 

With this increase in technique and necessity for highly 
specialized knowledge music gradually became the special re- 
sponsibility of those persons who were familiar with the new 
ways. Those who had attended the singing school together 
tended to sit together in the church service and thus the choir 
developed. From the " History of Rowley " we read — 1752 — 
" the parish voted that those who had learned the art of singing 
may have liberty to sit in the front gallery." 7 

Further evidence of this is shown in the following paragraph 
from the " History of Worcester " : " The final blow was struck 
to the old system by the resolution of the town, August 5, 1779, 
' Voted that the singers sit in the front seats of the front gal- 
lery and that those gentlemen who have hitherto sat in the front 
seats of said gallery have a right to sit in the front and second 
seat below, and that said singers have said seats appointed to 
said use. Voted, that said singers be requested to take said 
seats ; and carry on the singing in the public worship.' " 8 

Reaction against Choir 

With the division of responsibility and the rise of specialists 
came a clash in standards of musical excellence. The artistic 
taste of the choristers developed on lines more or less out of 
harmony with the spirit of worship. 

With the increased technique came increased vanity. " Flashy 
anthems, boisterous fuguing choruses, and long spun out solos " 
became the fashion among the choirs. " The church singer, 
whom the musical clergyman had preached into existence, began 
to feel his great importance as an integrant part of the church 
service; and scarcely had he conquered his envied place, when 
the clergyman found himself obliged to preach him down 
again." 9 

Growth in Popular Interest in Music 

By the opening of the nineteenth century popular interest 
developed in music as an art to such an extent that music 

7 Quoted from Ritter, Music in America, 48. 

8 Ibid., 48. 
'Ibid., 49. 



8 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

societies sprang up quite generally. The most notable of these 
were the Stoughton Musical Society, established in 1786, the 
Boston Handel and Haydn Society, organized in 181 5, and the 
New York Choral Society in 1823. 10 

Music as a Common School Subject 

With this increase of interest in singing and the growing 
importance of the Public Schools, it is not surprising to find 
that definite efforts were being made to include singing instruc- 
tion as a part of the work of the schools. In 1830 Wm. C. 
Woodbridge delivered a lecture on Vocal Music as a branch 
of Common Education before the American Institute of Instruc- 
tion, which attracted much attention. Woodbridge, who had 
recently returned from a trip abroad, was much impressed with 
the singing in Germany and Switzerland. " It was with no small 
degree of surprise and delight that we found it (music) in 
Germany and in Switzerland the property of the people, cheer- 
ing their hours of labor, elevating their hearts above the objects 
of sense, which are so prone to absorb them, and filling the 
periods of rest and amusement with social and moral song in 
place of noise, riot and gambling. But we were touched to the 
hearts when we heard its cheering, animating strains echoing 
from the walls of a school room." 11 

Lowell Mason, an • enthusiastic leader in musical affairs at 
the time, also had a vision of the value to be attained through 
the widespread diffusion of instruction in singing. He was 
especially interested in church music; indeed he has been called 
by some the " Father of Church Music in America." He adopted 
the methods of Pestalozzi through the influence of Woodbridge 
and was most influential in arousing interest in the problem 
of popular musical instruction. 

Boston Academy of Music 

In 1833 the Boston Academy of Music was organized with 
Lowell Mason at the head. The purpose of this organization 
can be seen from the following statement of their plans : " First, 

10 See Elson, National Music in America, 275. 

11 Report of Proceedings of American Institute of Instruction, 1830. 



Music 9 

To establish schools of music for juvenile classes; Second, 
To establish singing schools for adult classes ; Third, To form 
a class of instruction in the methods of teaching music which 
may be composed of teachers, parents, and all other persons 
desirous to qualify themselves for teaching vocal music ; Fourth, 
To form an association of choristers for purposes of improve- 
ment in conducting and performing social music in the church ; 
Fifth, To establish a course of scientific lectures for teachers, 
choristers, and others; Sixth, To establish a course of popular 
lectures on the nature and object of church music and style 
of composition and execution appropriate to it, with experi- 
mental illustrations by the performances of a select choir; Sev- 
enth, To establish exhibitions and concerts of, (i), juvenile 
classes, (2), select performers, (3), large numbers collected 
annually or semi-annually; Eighth, To introduce vocal music 
into the Public Schools, by the aid of such teachers as the 
Academy may be able to employ, each of whom shall instruct 
classes, alternately in a number of schools; Ninth, To publish 
circulars and essays for the purpose of the Academy." 12 

Results 

An analysis of the plans of the organization reveals the secret 
of its wonderful influence. The appeal is made in the name 
of the religious sanction ; instruction is to cut through the vari- 
ous social levels and reach teachers, children, parents and chor- 
isters. Publicity is to be gained not only through the usual 
channels, but by means of attractive exhibitions. With such a 
well organized plan it is not surprising to find that the move- 
ment was successful. From the first the organization met with 
support. The second annual report showed that over twenty- 
two hundred pupils had been enrolled. Sporadic attempts were 
made from time to time to get the school committee to undertake 
the burden of music instruction. Little came of it, however, 
until 1836, when the Academy of Music succeeded in getting 
the Select School Committee of Boston to adopt a memorial 
in favor of Music. 



12 Quoted from the American History and Encyclopedia of Music, vol- 
ume on American Music, 19-20. 



io Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

Sanctions 

In this report the arguments for and against music were set 
forth somewhat fully. The arguments for it were based on its 
value as an aid to reading, its value as a means of relaxation 
and its significance as an aid to the spirit of devotion. Its rela- 
tion to other accomplishments was recognized thus : " It is 
objected that if one accomplishment is introduced into our 
schools, why not another? If instruction is given in vocal music, 
why should it not be given in dancing also ? The answer simply 
is, because music is not dancing; because music has an intel- 
lectual character, which dancing has not; and above all because 
music has its moral purpose, which dancing has not." 13 

The following resolution, dated August 24, 1837, marks the 
next step taken by the Board : " This Committee, August 24, 
1837, submitted the following resolution to the Board : 

Resolved: That the experiment be tried in four schools. 

Resolved: That the experiment be given in charge of the Boston 
Academy of Music, under the direction of the Board. 

Resolved : That the experiment be commenced as soon as possible 
after the passing of this resolution and be controlled and 
extended as the Board may hereafter determine. 

Resolved: That these resolutions be transmitted to the city council, 
and that they be respectfully requested to make such 
appropriation as may be necessary to carry this plan into 
effect." M 

Actual Introduction in Boston 

The city council, however, refused to appropriate the neces- 
sary funds for making the experiment. Whereupon Lowell 
Mason introduced this instruction in one school on his own 
initiative, and at his own expense. This was well received and 
with such success that the opposition was broken down. The 
year following Mr. Mason was regularly employed as Superin- 
tendent of Music for the Boston Schools. He rapidly systema- 
tized the work and during his administration the work was suc- 
cessfully carried on. He was aggressive in the matter of giving 
special training to the teachers in the subject. 

"It is interesting to note this in the light of the present agitation in 
favor of the introduction of dancing in the Public Schools. 
u Ibid., 251. 



Music 1 1 

Influence of the Academy of Music 

The Boston Academy of Music affords an excellent example 
of the possibilities to be attained through skillful organization, 
wise leadership and persistent effort, in the matter of registra- 
tion of a social demand on the curriculum of the schools. Con- 
cerning their responsibility in this matter the following con- 
temporaneous estimate is significant : " To the exertion of the 
Academy of Music undoubtedly we are chiefly indebted for the 
introduction of music in the public schools. They have taken 
upon themselves the heavy responsibility of a most important 
experiment, the success of which must exert the strongest influ- 
ence on the future destiny of the art amongst us." 15 

Frank Damrosch recently said : " The most important service 
rendered by the Boston Academy of Music was its effort to 
influence public school authorities to introduce systematic in- 
struction of singing in the public schools." 16 

It is not to be inferred that Boston was alone in this matter 
— rather that the foregoing statement is somewhat typical of the 
steps taken in the introduction of the subject and the succeeding 
struggles. Nevertheless, Mr. Lowell Mason's influence, in con- 
nection with the Academy of Music, served as a powerful ex- 
ample for imitation. As to the effect of this work elsewhere, 
the third annual report of the Academy, issued in 1835, says : 
" Letters have been received from persons in Georgia, South 
Carolina, Virginia, Illinois, Missouri, Tennessee, Ohio, Mary- 
land, New York, Connecticut, Vermont, New Hampshire, and 
Maine asking for information relative to measures which they 
ought to adopt in order to introduce music as a branch of edu- 
cation in the common schools where they live." 17 

The fact that this report was made before the final intro- 
duction of the subject into the Boston Schools indicates the 
publicity which accompanied their efforts. 

Lack of Permanent Success 

However, the success of public school music was by no means 
continuous, even in Boston, despite the fact that it received 

15 Editorial Statement, Musical Magazine, July 6, 1839. 

16 American History and Encyclopedia of Music, Music in America, 21. 
"3rd Ann. Rept, "1835. 



12 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

recognition at the hands of the Board. There was sufficient 
pressure in favor of music instruction to warrant its continued 
presence in the schools as a subject of study, but this was not 
strong enough to demand adequate provision for instruction. 
Concerning this Superintendent Philbrick said : "All along there 
was more or less opposition to it on the part of those members 
of the Board who took narrow views of the scope and aims 
of education ; the provision made for teaching it was inadequate, 
and the standard of attainments arrived at was what we should 
regard as very low. . . . One music master was annually 
appointed ' to provide teachers of singing, and superintend the 
same,' for which service he was allowed a certain compensation 
for each school taught. . . . After this had been in practice 
about eight years, it was superseded by a ' double-headed sys- 
tem,' the schools being divided between two music masters, who 
were allowed to employ their respective assistants. This was 
undoubtedly a step backward, and in two or three years was 
followed by a still greater stride in the same direction. . . . 
The sub-committee of each school was authorized to nominate a 
teacher of music for the school under the charge of the same. 
This sporadic arrangement was not a success." 18 

Renewed interest was taken in the subject from 1856 on, and 
in 1864 the office of supervisor and teacher of music in the 
Primary Schools was created. 

Agitation Elsewhere 

The records of the city schools of this period show the same 
general attitude toward the subject. A music teacher was em- 
ployed in Chicago about 1840 at a salary of sixteen dollars per 
month. Owing to a lack of funds the position was discontinued. 
In 1846 the children by popular subscription paid for a special 
teacher of singing. 19 

" In 1848, a musical convention was held in the First Baptist 
Church in Chicago, in which singers and those interested in 
music gathered together to discuss the best means of securing 
the advantage of a general musical education for the young of 

18 Quoted from Boston School Report, 1874, 274. 

19 Clark, Public Schools of Chicago. 



Music 



i3 



the city; the adoption of the study of music in the public 
schools and the improvement of church singing." 20 

Music was included in the list of required studies for the 
High Schools of California in 185 1. 

Milwaukee, St. Louis, and Cincinnati were also the scenes 
of early activity in connection with music. Indeed the German 
population throughout the West was uniformly aggressive in 
this particular. 

In the third quarter of the last century there was a great 
spread of musical conventions, institutes and normals. Music 
festivals were organized all over the country. Many of these 
became relatively stable, and held together a permanent follow- 
ing. All of these activities served the purpose of not only 
bringing together those who were already interested in singing, 
but focusing attention in such a way that a popular interest 
was aroused. 

The kindergarten movement contributed not a little to the 
agitation for the general introduction of music into the schools. 

Religious Pressure 

The relation between school music and the religious service 
has at all times been prominent. Other things being equal, 
public school singing has not advanced so rapidly in communi- 
ties dominated by religious bodies which were opposed or indif- 
ferent to singing in the church. A comparison between a Quaker 
community in Pennsylvania and a German community in the 
Middle West, as to their attitude in this matter, reveals this 
quite clearly. 

In a personal interview with a member of a school board, 
in a city of the Central West, dominated by a German popula- 
tion, the following facts were brought out. A supervisor of 
music was employed a few years ago who proved very suc- 
cessful in the development of the subject, both in and out of 
school. Oratorios were rendered, festivals were held, and a 
large orchestra was maintained. This influence was soon felt 
in the churches of the city. At length this supervisor was elected 
to a position elsewhere. When this was made public, the Board 

20 Quoted in American History and Encyclopedia of Music, volume on 
American Music, 185. 



14 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

was made the subject of a perfect onslaught. The Sunday 
schools could not afford to lose this man. The church created 
such a pressure that the supervisor's salary was raised beyond 
all precedent. 

Attitude within the School 

Thus far attention has been directed to certain changes that 
have taken place relative to music. The change in the religious 
attitude and the growth in popular interest in singing have been 
pointed out. A typical example of the means used in securing 
the introduction of instruction in vocal music in the public 
schools has been given. The question arises as to the reception 
given to this demand by the schoolmaster himself. Did he 
respond in spirit as well as in form? Did he interpret this 
demand in the light of its origin? A study of the printed state- 
ments in the school reports and the papers read at the educa- 
tional conventions during the years paralleling the widespread 
introduction of music as a part of the regular curriculum, leads 
one to the conclusion that the leaders in education were prone 
to read a meaning of their own into the subject. The traditions 
of the schoolroom were such that it seemed necessary to look 
for some occult " educational " value in order to give sanction 
for its presence in the schoolroom. It was not enough to have 
singing for its own sake; psychological belief in formal disci- 
pline was reflected on every hand. 21 

Statement of a Leader in Public School Music 

A department of music instruction was organized in con- 
nection with the National Education Association in 1885. 
At that meeting the President of this section, Mr. Daniel B. 
Hagar, summarized the value of music thus : 

I. Music as a means of Mental Culture. 

(1) Perceptive faculties . . . The teaching of the simplest 
element in reading gives far less occasion for mental action, 
than the teaching of a corresponding element in music, and 
of course the less the action the less the power acquired. 

(2) Next in order after the perceptive comes memory .... 
As the relations of music involving all the varieties of rhythm, 
and melody and dynamics, are exceedingly numerous, the 
study of music is pre-eminently adapted to the culture of 
the memory. 

31 See Proc, N. E. A., 1885 et seq. 



Music 1 5 

(3) In close connection with memory is the faculty of recollec- 
tion in the training of which music may perform an im- 
portant part. . . . 

(4) That the study of music tends to cultivate the imagination 
is obvious, for there is no emotion or passion which cannot 
gain utterance in music. 

(5) Again, however, the faculty of reason may be defined — and 
its definitions are numerous — it cannot well be denied that a 
science which occasions the most vigorous exercise of the 
understanding affords ample scope for the reason. 

II. In the second place, music holds an important relation to schools 
on account of its moral power. . . . We see how it calms the troubled 
mind ; how it sheds cheerfulness upon daily toil ; how it revives the 
drooping spirits ; how it carries the sweetest pleasures into the family 
circle ; how it lifts the soul from the dull plains of earth to the celestial 
mountains. 

III. In the third place, music may justly claim a prominent position in 
schools by reason of its influence on physical culture. Vocal music en- 
larges the lungs, expands the chest and gives increased vigor to all its 
organs. ... I have not a doubt that the early, systematic and per- 
sistent practice of music in our schools would be instrumental in pro- 
longing thousands of lives, and in saving multitudes from that direful 
disease — consumption. 22 

Intellectual Value Dominant 

The value suggested in the last paragraph was quite gen- 
erally accepted during the eighties. Nevertheless, the intel- 
lectual value was uppermost in the mind of the schoolmaster. 
United States Commissioner Dawson said: "A view of the 
matter not frequently taken, is that of Mr. F. B. Richardson, 
Superintendent of Schools, Woburn, Massachusetts. He says, 
' That there are many advantages to be gained by the study 
of music is very evident, but it may be fairly questioned whether 
it is the business of the schools to teach this subject as an art, 
and measure off the progress of the pupils by the amount of 
pleasing harmony they can produce at a given time. As draw- 
ing is taught, not to make a finished draughtsman, but to train 
the judgment and secure attentive observation, so music should 
be directed toward training the mind in such a way as to give 
it more power, not merely in the production of sweet sounds, 
but in performing the ordinary duties of life. There is no 
room in the curriculum for musical training; but training in 

* Proc. N. E. A., 1885, 369-75- 



1 6 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

music properly directed may be made of great value. If this 
distinction and the limits of this study are kept clearly in 
view, the efficiency of your educational system may be in- 
creased by devoting an hour a week to this branch; otherwise 
the time had better be spent on some other phase of mental 
development.' " 23 

In the foregoing statement the fear lest the subject be taught 
from the art standpoint is quite significant in the light of the 
long prevailing method of instruction which has placed chief 
emphasis on the purely formal or mechanical side. 

Formal Discipline 

As a further illustration of the attitude which the school 
men assumed toward music the following is suggestive: Mr. 
W. E. Pulsifer made a report before the music department of 
the National Education Association in 1892, which attempted 
to cover the " educational " side of the subject. Mr. Pulsifer 
reported the answers to a list of questions which had been 
submitted to a number of the prominent educational leaders 
of the time. Definite statements were received from over forty 
of these men in answer to the following questions : 

1. Do you consider vocal music, as it should be taught in 
the schools, a means of stimulating and developing the mental 
faculties ? 

2. Which particular faculties of the mind do you think vocal 
music most directly stimulates? 

The returns from this group of men were practically unani- 
mous to the effect that vocal music as it should be taught, 
would serve to stimulate and to develop the mental faculties. 
No hesitation was shown in the matter of naming the various 
faculties to be developed by the proper study of music. These 
included the faculties of: perception, memory, judgment, dis- 
crimination, imagination, hearing, beauty, attention, taste, pre- 
cision, self-restraint, subordination, accuracy, morals, calculation, 
concentration, seeing, harmony, love, conscience, reverence, ad- 
miration, aesthetics, will, compassion, observation, "the phan- 
tasy." One answer is worthy of complete quotation : " I believe 
no study can claim authority over music in developing mental 

28 Quoted from the Report, Commissioner of Education, 1887, 213. 



Music 1 7 

activity, and if circumstances attending its thorough teaching 
are perfect, its influence is at once apparent in all other studies, 
stimulating and lubricating the mental faculties to wonderful 
attainments." 24 

Administrative Means Used to Secure Instruction 

The prevailing administrative plan for securing instruction 
in this subject has been to divide the burden of responsibility 
between special teachers or supervisors and the regular teachers. 
Only in exceptional instances has the regular teacher been held 
entirely responsible for instruction in singing. 25 

No considerable number of the regular teachers are required 
to show knowledge of music as a requisite to certification. This 
is in striking contrast to the situation in Germany, where the 
regular teachers are thoroughly trained in both vocal and in- 
strumental music. 20 

Summary 

With the increased recognition of the value of music as an 
adjunct to worship came increased attention to the technique 
involved. 

The controversy over method resulted in the widespread 
adoption of a system of musical notation. 

With this came the necessity for singing schools as a means 
for transmission of the formal symbols. Increased interest 
in congregational singing and in a general musical culture brought 
about a demand for popular instruction in singing. 

This demand was registered in the public schools by means 
of organization of outside groups — Boston Academy of Music 
an example. 

Public opinion was for a long time apparently satisfied with 
the official recognition. The traditions of the school were such 
that the intellectual value of music was made most prominent. 

The burden of responsibility has been placed in charge of 
special teachers or supervisors, rather than of the regular 
teachers. 



24 Proc. N. E. A., 1892, 519-524. The curious reader is referred to the 
complete discussion in the published proceedings for a more detailed 
treatment of this topic including the names of the correspondents. 

"See Chap. XI. 

" Kandel, The Training of Elementary Teachers in Germany, 135-168. 



CHAPTER III 
DRAWING 

Early Indifference 

A number of causes have contributed to the early indifference 
in regard to popular instruction in drawing in this country. 
Among these might be mentioned the fact that the hardships 
attendant to a pioneer life are not calculated to foster artistic 
taste or creation. Stern necessity places such a high premium 
upon utility that art as such is driven into the background. 
The early public schools centered attention around the bare 
essentials necessary for practical participation within the group. 
The few who had an interest in drawing as an art and economic 
leisure to gratify their taste, were provided for by means of 
private instruction or in the private schools where it was usually 
taught as an accomplishment for which an extra charge was 
made. 1 

Indeed there was much downright prejudice against allowing 
children to " waste " their time on such pursuits. This public 
displeasure was so great that the early efforts at the intro- 
duction of drawing as a part of the public school curriculum 
met with almost universal failure. 

Scattering Attempts at Drawing Instruction 

In 1 821, Wm. Bentley Fowle, a member of the Boston School 
Committee, who suddenly came into the position of head master 
of one of the public schools of that city, provided instruction 
in drawing. Although the actual work is said to have been suc- 
cessful, the people within a couple of years succeeded not only 
in eliminating the subject, but also in effecting the discharge 
of the head master; whereupon Fowle established a private 
school for girls which met with considerable approval. Here he 

1 Clark, Monograph 14, in Butler, Education in United States. Also, 
Art and Industry, Part I, XXXV. 

18 



Drawing 1 9 

was able to select students with a narrower range of taste and 
practical necessity. 2 

The early attempt at the introduction of the subject in Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore, Cleveland and elsewhere met with similar 
opposition. 3 

In Boston the advocates succeeded in getting the school com- 
mittee in 1827 to make drawing a permissive study in the upper 
class. But little came of this, however, because of the lack of 
teaching facilities. Even after the subject was placed on the 
required list in 1836, the results were meagre. In order to 
improve the situation Miss E. P. Peabody did gratuitous service 
as a teacher of drawing in 1838-9. This was followed by a 
special course of instruction for teachers. However, the results 
were only temporarily improved. 4 

Insufficient Pressure to Insure Persistent Attention 

The impetus which was given to the work by individual initia- 
tive was of value, but there was lacking the social pressure 
necessary for the promotion of serious and continuous consid- 
eration of the subject. Not until several decades later do we 
find this pressure sufficiently strong to actually bring about a 
widespread change in the practice in the schoolrooms of Boston. 
The early drawing enthusiasts lacked a popular sanction. 

Economic Value of Drawing 

Drawing really made little headway until it was associated 
with an economic value; with the economic interpretation, em- 
phasis was largely placed on the mechanical side. As early as 
1747 Benjamin Franklin saw the economic value of drawing 
and enumerated it in his proposed course of study for the 
Academy of the day. He included it with writing and arith- 
metic as a study of utility. 5 

Popular acceptance of this belief, however, was delayed for 
over a century. In the matter of creating public sentiment the 

2 Clarke, Monograph 14, in Butler, Education in United States. Draw- 
ing in Public Schools, pp. 4-8. 

3 Ibid, 13-34- 
*Ibid, 13. 

5 Proposals Relating to Education, Benjamin Franklin. Smyth, Life 
and Writings of Benjamin Franklin, II, 391. 



20 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

activities of Dr. Barnard and Horace Mann deserve mention. 
In 1838, Dr. Barnard published in the October number of the 
Connecticut Common School Journal, Professor Stowe's report 
to the Ohio Legislature on the Prussian schools. In the report 
emphasis is placed on the value of Drawing and Designing. 
In the reports on foreign schools which were published within 
the succeeding years, Dr. Barnard continuously directed atten- 
tion to the utilitarian side of drawing as a part of public edu- 
cation. This same note was apparent in his public appeal in 
which he emphasized the value of drawing to the artisan. 6 

Horace Mann also was a valiant advocate of the subject. His 
ideas were clearly set forth in his Seventh Annual Report which 
appeared in 1844. 

"But suppose it were otherwise and that learning to draw re- 
tarded the acquisition of good penmanship, how richly would 
the learner be compensated by the sacrifice! . . . For the 
master architect, for the engraver, the engineer, the pattern 
designer, the draughtsman, moulder, machine builder or head 
mechanic of any kind, all acknowledge that this art is essential 
and indispensable. But there is no department of business or 
condition in life where this accomplishment might not be of 
utility. Every man should be able to plot a field, to sketch a 
wood or river, to draw the outline of a simple machine, a piece 
of household furniture or a farming utensil and to delineate 
the internal arrangement or construction of a house. . . . 
Whatever advances the mechanic and manufacturing arts, there- 
fore, is especially important here." 7 

Concerning the influence of Mann, Superintendent Philbrick 
said, "As one of the results of Mr. Mann's report on foreign 
education, the school committees of Boston in 1848 placed the 
word drawing in the list of grammar school studies." 8 

English Influence 

In 1 85 1 an event took place which had great significance in 
this connection. In that year was held the First International 
Exposition in London. The showing made by the products 
of the English artisans was so poor in comparison with that 
made by the exhibits of the continental workers that prompt 

8 Files of Barnard's Journals XXI (entire series) have a summary of 
European conditions. 

7 Life and Works of Horace Mann, III, 327-9. 

8 Report of Boston School Committee, 1874. 



Drawing 2 1 

and decisive action was taken by the English authorities to 
stimulate new interest in educational means of improving this 
condition, through the teaching of industrial drawing and design. 
The experiment attracted a good bit of interest in this country 
and the experience of England was fully capitalized. From 1857 
to 1 861 M. A. D wight published a series of articles on "Art 
as an important Branch of Education " in Barnard's American 
Journal of Education, which attracted much attention. 9 Interest 
grew till in i860 the Legislature of Massachusetts, largely 
through the instrumentality of its manufacturing interest, made 
drawing a permissive study. 

Meagre Results 

Placing drawing on the permissive list had little real effect 
either in the earlier case of Boston or in the State at large. 
Concerning the Boston experience Superintendent Philbrick said : 
"As the teachers were almost universally ignorant of this branch, 
and as not the slightest provision was made for teaching it 
. . . next to nothing came of this action. The prevailing 
ignorance in regard to the subject was only equalled by the 
indifference respecting it. If a progressive teacher tried to get 
up a little drawing in the school, he was likely to get a gentle 
rebuke from his committee and some blame from his fellow 
teachers." 10 

Divergent Points of View as to Value of Drawing 

The reports made by the various cities in this period to the 
Massachusetts State Board are full of references to the attempts 
at instruction in this subject. In most cases much space is given 
to setting forth the advantages to be gained from the pursuit 
of this study. There was little unanimity, however, in the point 
of view, except that there was the general fear that the children 
might waste their time and get only pleasure from the practice. 
The following is suggestive : " Drawing is always an amusing 
exercise for children and we think that teachers have allowed 
it to become too exclusively an amusing exercise." 11 

9 Barnard's American Journal, XXII, 225-83. Also IV- VII. 

"Boston School Report, 1874. 

u Massachusetts School Report, 1863. 



22 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

This suggestion of the use of drawing as a form of " busy 
work " has a parallel in the treatment of certain of the newer 
subjects on the part of the untrained teacher. With the state- 
ment of purpose expressed by the school authorities themselves, 
it is not surprising to find that teachers tended to follow the 
line of least resistance. 

The following extract from the report of Berlin, Massachu- 
setts, in 1864, is suggestive of the range of values ascribed to 
drawing : "Another branch for which we bespeak encouragement 
in school and at home, is that of drawing, — map drawing, pic- 
ture drawing, and all forms of diagrams. It is within the 
memory of some, when to draw a picture of a horse or dog 
upon the slate, however soberly, was a serious offence in the 
school room. Better views prevail. No employment is more 
profitable or pleasant even to the little scholars in the primer. 
It employs time and improves the eyes and the hand and the 
taste. It is vastly helpful in mathematics; above all in geogra- 
phy. The appreciation of the subject in life is manifold. It 
is not an art useful only to the painter, the architect and the 
engineer — it belongs to the farmer, the carpenter, the smith and 
the mechanic. The schoolroom is the place to cultivate it, but 
it will be found a pleasure everywhere, as well as an art uni- 
versally useful. Let parents encourage drawing at home. It 
will afford profitable recreation as well as mental improve- 
ment." 12 

The Effects of the French Exhibition of 1867 

.The French Exhibition of 1867 served to focus attention 
again on the economic aspect of the subject. The showing 
which England made at this exhibit indicated that a remark- 
able degree of progress had been made since the earlier display 
of 185 1. This improvement was in large measure attributed to 
the increased attention that had been given to industrial draw- 
ing and design as a means of education. The whole thing made 
a great impression, not only in England but in this country. 
The industrial leaders of Massachusetts were especially im- 
pressed with the educational significance. This crystalized in a 
petition which was sent to the State Legislature in June, 1869, 
the full text of which follows : 



12 Massachusetts Report, 1864. 



Drawing 23 

" To the Honorable Court of the State of Massachusetts : 

Your petitioners respectfully represent that every branch of 
manufacturing in which the citizens of Massachusetts are en- 
gaged, requires in the details of the processes connected with 
it, some knowledge of drawing and other arts of design on the 
part of the skilled workmen engaged. 

At the present time no wide provision is made for instruction 
in drawing in the public schools. 

Our manufacturers therefore compete under disadvantages 
with the manufacturers of Europe, for in all of the manufac- 
turing countries of Europe free provision is made for instruct- 
ing workmen of all classes in drawing. At this time nearly 
all the best draughtsmen in our shops are men thus trained 
abroad. 

In England, within the last ten years, very large additions 
have been made to the provisions, which were before very gen- 
erous, for the public instruction of workmen in drawing; your 
petitioners are assured that boys and girls, by the time they are 
sixteen years of age, acquire great proficiency in mechanical 
drawing and in other arts of design. 

We are also assured that men and women who have been 
long engaged in the processes of manufacture learn rapidly, and 
with pleasure, enough of the arts of design to assist them ma- 
terially in their work. 

For such reasons we ask that the Board of Education may 
be directed to report in detail to the next general court some 
definite plan for introducing schools for drawing, — free to all 
men, women and children, in all towns of the Commonwealth 
of more than five thousand inhabitants." 13 



Results of Petition 

This clean cut statement of the economic value of drawing, 
supported by a group of highly respected industrial leaders 
served to generate a pressure which brought drawing into the 
public mind in a way hitherto unknown ; at last the subject 
had a sanction which was calculated to win popular approval. 
The final outcome of this petition and the agitation which fol- 
lowed was the famous Act of 1870, which read : 

An Act, relating to free instruction in drawing — Be it enacted, etc., as 

follows : 
Section 1. The first section of Chapter Thirty-eight of the general 
statutes is hereby amended so as to include drawing among the branches 

13 Bailey, Drawing, No. 1-15. 



3 4 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

of learning which are by said section required to be taught in the Public 
Schools. 

Section 2. Any city or town may, and every city or town having 
more than ten thousand inhabitants shall, annually make provision for 
giving free instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing to persons 
over fifteen years of age either in day or evening schools, under the 
direction of the School Committee. 

Section 3. This Act shall take effect upon its passage (approved 
May 16, 1870). " 

It is interesting to note the compulsory provision made in the 
matter of instruction in drawing in cities with a population 
above ten thousand. Especial attention is also called to the 
description of the subject " mechanical or industrial " which is 
in exact accordance with the arguments which were being put 
forth in favor of its introduction. 

Transfer of English Leader 

The enactment of this law was followed by the establishment 
of the Massachusetts Normal Art School in 1873. Walter 
Smith, who had been closely identified with the same field in 
England, was placed in general charge of the administration of 
this school and of the provisions of the law in Boston and 
in the State. Smith thus was in a position to wield a tre- 
mendous influence in determining the direction toward which 
instruction should go. Within the next decade he was the lead- 
ing figure in the whole movement. He lectured widely and 
wrote much. His manual published in 1873 served as a guide 
in many other sections of the country. 

Industrial Nature of Drawing 

Concerning the industrial nature of this manual, Henry 
Turner Bailey said: "Mr. Smith's Manual of 1873 was called 
a manual of ' Free Hand Drawing and Designing.' Mechanical 
drawing as such, was not mentioned therein as an essential 
factor in elementary instruction. In glancing through the plates 
of that book, however, one is impressed with the mechanical 
character of all the illustrations. Not a single drawing has a 
free hand appearance; on the contrary, ruled construction lines 

14 Bailey, Drawing, No. 1-15. 



Drawing 2 5 

abound, and the terminology employed in the text smacks of the 
drafting room rather than the studio." 15 

Thus by concerted action the industrial leaders were able in 
a way to transplant the system which had been successful in 
England, in a comparatively short time. 

Attempts Elsewhere 

Meanwhile scattering attempts had been made in other sec- 
tions of this country. Drawing was included in the list of 
subjects in the first New York High School for Boys which was 
opened in 1825. 16 

The report of the Philadelphia schools for 1840 in discussing 
the changes in the Central High School of that city, says : 
" The department of drawing and writing by Rembrandt Peale 
went into operation in February of this year." 17 

It is interesting to note the connection of penmanship and 
drawing. These were thought to have much in common in the 
early days. This served as one of the practical sanctions for 
drawing instruction. In 1842 Rembrandt Peale urged the neces- 
sity of courses in drawing in the other schools of Philadelphia. 
However his offer of gratuitous service in superintending the 
introduction of the subject in the elementary schools received 
little encouragement. Although the work was offered in the 
High School for many years, the attempts in the elementary 
schools were soon abandoned. Peale is said to have had two 
great ambitions : one to introduce drawing instruction to the 
masses ; the other to paint a creditable portrait of Washington. 
In the latter he was quite successful as the Peale portrait of 
the first president is well known. 18 

By 1848 William Minifie had organized a systematic course 
of instruction in the Baltimore schools. He was soon dismissed 
however. 19 

In 1849 Cleveland introduced drawing as a regular subject 
of instruction. A specialist was employed who secured excellent 

15 Bailey, Drawing, No. 3, 94. 

16 First Annual Report of the High School Society, 6-7. 

17 Report of the Philadelphia Schools, 1840, 18. 

38 Hart, in a letter quoted in Clarke, Drawing in American Schools, 15. 
19 Clarke, Drawing in American Schools, 31-32. 



26 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

results ; however, not until two decades later do we find a perma- 
nent policy relating to the subject. 20 

The State Legislature of California included drawing as one 
of the list of required subjects. 21 

In 1862 drawing was added to the curriculum of the Cincin- 
nati schools. Two years later two special teachers were ap- 
pointed to instruct in this subject. In 1868 a superintendent of 
the subject was appointed. A little later a full corps of assist- 
ants was added so that by 1870 the work was under full sway. 22 

Thus it is seen that in the latter part of the sixties the 
forces which had been operative in Massachusetts had been to 
a greater or less extent operating in other sections. When to 
this fertile field of suggestibility was added a powerful example 
for imitation, as in the case of the advance steps taken in 
Massachusetts, it is small wonder that we find drawing as one 
of the chief centers of interest and discussion in the decade 
which followed. As is to be expected on account of the pre- 
vailing economic sanction, this influence spread most rapidly 
to the urban population given over to industrial pursuits. 

In 1875 the New York Legislature passed a law requiring 
instruction in drawing in the elementary schools. The reports 
of state and city superintendents of schools teem with recom- 
mendations relative to the subject. 

As the movement gained headway under the economic impetus 
of the seventies, there was a rapid shifting on the part of the 
leaders in education. From the report of Henry Kiddle, of 
New York City, 1875, trie following account is taken : " The 
results (in drawing) have varied much in different schools, 
and, under the impression that the system pursued is not suf- 
ficiently uniform and progressive, the Superintendent recom- 
mends that the course be revised and the system be re-organized 
on the industrial basis now popular in Massachusetts and else- 
where." 23 

Similar illustrations of the adoption of the new point of view 
abound. 



Freese, Early History of Cleveland Public Schools. 
California Statutes, 1851, Ch. 126, Art. 7, Sec. 2. 
Shotwell, Schools of Cincinnati. 
Quoted in Commissioner's Report, 1875, 295. 



Drawing 27 

Impetus Given to Drawing by Centennial Exposition 

The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 contributed 
powerfully to this movement. Not only did the exhibit of the 
foreign nations attract great attention, but the showing made 
by the exhibitors in this country served as an illustration of 
possibilities to be attained that had hitherto been undreamed of. 
Smith's exhibit of the work of the Massachusetts schools cre- 
ated much enthusiasm. From this time on there has been a 
steady increase in the number of schools providing instruction 
in this branch and in the amount of time and money devoted 
to it. 24 

Varying Conceptions 

Thus did the forces accumulate which brought drawing into 
the schools. As in the case of other movements of a similar 
nature this gathered together a group of people, who, although 
united in their demand for drawing in the schools, had funda- 
mentally different conceptions of the means and the ends in- 
volved. The manufacturers saw in this an opportunity of 
getting a superior type of artisan. The student of social prob- 
lems looked to this as a means of improving the earning capacity 
and usefulness of the workingman. Judging from the accounts 
of the difficulties found in securing a satisfactory attendance 
at the early evening schools, the workingman himself saw little 
in it. 20 

Reception within the School 

Interest attaches to the attitude of the school people toward 
the new subject. A study of the reports and addresses of the 
period reveals the same general spirit as was noted in the case 
of music. The teachers were for the most part either unable 
or unwilling to undertake the added burden. 

The practical end involved in instruction in industrial draw- 
ing not only involved the necessity of a fair measure of tech- 
nical skill on the part of the teacher, but there was also the 
necessity for building up a class-room technique from the stand- 
point of teaching method. 

24 Cubberley, Changing Conceptions of Education, 40. Dexter, History 
of Education in United States, 404. Later tables in this study reveal 
the spread of this practice. 

15 Reports, Commissioner of Education of the period. 



28 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

Neglect on the Part of Regular Teachers 

It is not surprising that the regular teacher tended to neglect 
the work under one pretext or another. In 1874 Superintendent 
Philbrick of Boston gave a full account of this neglect and the 
attempt on the part of the school committee to bring added 
pressure on the teachers by making it obligatory upon each in 
the primary and grammar schools to give one hour each week 
to drawing instruction. 26 

This neglect was in general quite irrespective of the fact 
that the subject was officially included in the curriculum. Wal- 
ter Perry whose work was of such nature that he was in a posi- 
tion to have a fairly accurate view of this neglect, said in 
1887: " I think I am safe in saying that in more than half of 
the schools that claim to teach drawing, the subject is merely 
mentioned in the course of study and not much else can be 
said of it. The teachers do little or nothing with it." 27 

Difficulty in Sticking to Industrial Purpose 

From the published utterances of the various leaders in this 
branch of instruction, the impression is gained that much diffi- 
culty was found in keeping the work in the school clearly headed 
on industrial lines. L. S. Thompson, of Indiana, in 1881 said: 
" By industrial drawing, I mean the study of form as exhibited 
in natural and artificial objects .... When properly 
taught it is more nearly an industrial education within itself 
than any other one study, and yet in a majority of schools 
it is regarded as something merely ornamental in character, 
having little or no practical value." 28 

Intellectual Value Uppermost 

Of this tendency to break away from the " industrial " idea 
of drawing, Miss Mary Hicks, of Boston, said in 1903 before 
the International Congress of Education : " Everywhere the 
work of the supervisor of drawing was to direct the drawing 
mainly toward industrial design as a means of improving the 
industrial products of the country, increasing the wage earning 

26 Boston School Report, 1874. 
^Proc. N. E. A., 1887, 573-7- 
* Proc. N. E. A., 1881, 248. 



Drawing 29 

power of the people and adding to the material prosperity. 
Then came the idea that drawing was a mode of expressing 
thought and that hence it should be cultivated as a means of 
mental development." This is not surprising in view of the 
fundamentally intellectual nature of the school room and its tra- 
ditions. The following quotation from a school superintendent 
of Pennsylvania is suggestive of this change : " The old style 
drawing consisted principally of picture making from copies. 
The new is an intellectual study; the thought, ingenuity, and 
invention of the scholar in the line of art as applied to indus- 
trial pursuits. The influence of this branch is manifold; it 
especially develops: (1) Observation; (2) forethought; (3) 
painstaking; (4) taste, imagination; (5) memory of forms; (6) 
power to discriminate — judgment; (7) ease and precision in the 
movements of the hand. No profession, calling or business can 
be brought to mind that does not call for such mental and 
physical culture. As drawing is opposed to carelessness, haste, 
bad forms, and clumsy execution, it is a valuable art in teach- 
ing writing." 29 

In the last sentence there is a survival of one of the early 
sanctions for instruction in drawing: namely that it might be 
an aid to penmanship. Here we also find a clear acceptance 
of the prevailing conception of the doctrine of formal discipline. 

Mental Discipline in Drawing 

In 1888 Colonel I. Edward Clarke of the United States Bureau 
of Education, who had spent several years in gathering together 
the material relative to Art and Industry in connection with 
the schools of this country and was without doubt better ac- 
quainted with the situation than any other man of the period, 
thus summarized the prevailing belief: 

" The value of drawing as a means of mental discipline is 
believed to be not inferior to that of any of the studies at 
present included in the curriculum of the Public Schools. It 
is, therefore, not only because of its direct application to the 
industries and art and hence of economic value to the pupil, 
that this study of drawing has a claim to admission into the 
public schools. Its value as a means of developing and train- 
ing the intellectual faculties is so well established, from the pro- 

29 Report of Schools, Erie, Pennsylvania, 1877-8. 



30 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

fessional point of view of the teacher, and, regarded merely 
as an instrument of pedagogics, the progressive system of 
. . . . industrial drawing can readily establish its claim for 
introduction into the elementary course of instruction on educa- 
tional grounds alone. ... In urging that industrial draw- 
ing be taught in all public schools, it has been necessary to 
so emphasize the practical character and economic value of the 
study that equally just claims of other studies may seem to 
have been neglected." 30 

From the foregoing it can be seen that the outside forces 
which were operative in the widespread introduction of drawing 
in the public schools in the seventies were almost wholly 
economic. The introduction started on a purely utilitarian or 
industrial basis and was influenced largely by English thought. 31 

When this subject came under the influence of the traditions 
of the school it was subject in a large measure to a different 
interpretation. There was a constant tendency to treat it apart 
from its industrial and utilitarian significance. There was a 
widespread tendency to look for purely intellectual values in 
the light of formal training of the eye and hand. 

The varying interpretations given to the subject are reflected 
in the changing titles used. At first it was known as Indus- 
trial Art drawing. The word art quickly lost its significance 
and the term became Industrial drawing with a rather clear 
implication. To-day the word industrial has dropped almost 
entirely out of use and the subject is simply known as draw- 
ing. The present tendency is distinctly toward the art side. 
It would be of interest to know what, if any, relation exists 
between the decline of the industrial phase and the rapid in- 
crease in the proportion of women as special teachers or super- 
visors of the subject. Reference to a later section shows that 
in 1908, eighty-five per cent of these were women. 

Plan of Administration 

Reference has already been made to the fact that there was 
great difficulty in getting the regular teacher to undertake seri- 
ously the burden of responsibility in regard to instruction in 
this subject. The number of cities employing special teachers 

30 Clark, Art and Industry, Part I, CXXII. 

31 MacAllister, Commissioner of Education Report, 1894-5, 793-8o3. 



Drawing 3 1 

and supervisors has steadily increased. In 1888 about fifty per 
cent of the cities of Massachusetts provided special teachers 
or supervisors of drawing. In 1899 regular instruction in 
drawing was given to ninety-eight per cent of the pupils of 
the State. Ninety per cent of these pupils were receiving this 
instruction under special teaching or supervision. 32 

The growth of this practice has been rapid throughout the 
whole country within the last few years. 33 

Summary 

The early pioneer life was not conducive to the development 
of interest in drawing as it was then interpreted. 

The early scattering attempts at the introduction of drawing 
as a part of the school work, failed because of the popular 
prejudice against drawing considered as an accomplishment. 
Dr. Barnard and Horace Mann directed attention to the value 
of drawing as an aid to the artisan. In doing this they cited 
the example of certain foreign countries. 

The reaction in England following the London Exhibit of 
1 85 1 in which drawing and design received much attention, 
served to increase interest in this country in the economic 
aspect of the work. 

The English Exhibit at the French Exhibition of 1867 so 
enthused certain manufacturing interests of Massachusetts that 
advanced steps were taken to provide for general instruction in 
drawing. 

The English influence was further increased through the 
activity of Walter Smith. 

The Philadelphia Exposition seemed to direct popular atten- 
tion to the value of drawing in such a way that a widespread 
introduction of the subject into the public schools followed. 

The traditions of the school were such that the industrial 
side of drawing was pushed to the margin while emphasis was 
given to the intellectual and aesthetic values. The burden of 
responsibility as in the case of music has been placed in charge 
of special teachers and supervisors rather than of the regular 
teacher. 



Henry Turner Bailey, Drawing, No. 3, 98. 
See Chap. VIII. 



CHAPTER IV 
MANUAL TRAINING 

Social and Economic Changes 

Inquiry into the sanction back of the introduction of manual 
training into the schools leads one to a close inspection of the 
changes in the economic and social life of the people during the 
latter part of the last century. 

The nineteenth century marked the rise and development of 
a new type of industrial activity in the country. The gradual 
shift away from agrarian and purely commercial interests to 
that of manufacturing which has been such a marked feature 
of the last half century, had scarcely begun by the close of the 
War of 1812. 1 

With this change in economic activity urbanization steadily 
increased. The massing of population brought new problems, 
opportunities and responsibilities. As the number of people 
increased in these units, there was a greater opportunity for 
division of labor in all lines of human activity. 

With this has come about almost the complete disappearance 
of the old system of apprenticeship. As the struggle became 
more refined new aspects appeared on the surface. Under the 
new order every man became a potential producing agent in 
this struggle. In industrial centers this has, as was seen in 
connection with the development of drawing, pointed toward 
the desirability of giving special instruction to this potential 
producer that would increase his producing power. Owing to 
the complexities of the new industrial order, conditions were 
not favorable to a restoration of the apprenticeship system ; nor 
were the manufacturers willing to bear the expense connected 
with special schools of their own. 

1 Carlton, Economic Influences on Education, Bulletin University of 
Wisconsin, 1908, 629-633. 

32 



Manual Training 33 

Relation of Manual Training to Drawing 

Reference has been made in a preceding chapter to the part 
played by the industrial forces in the introduction of drawing 
and the industrial turn which was at first given to this subject. 
The relation which existed between the early development of 
manual training and industrial drawing seemed quite close. 

It was but a short step from the working drawing to the 
actual construction of the model. " One of the most striking 
and significant results of the experiment begun in Boston in 
1870 by the teaching of industrial drawing to the public school 
children of that city, has been the widespread interest awakened 
throughout the United States in the further development of 
industrial training of children. No sooner was it shown that 
it was possible to give to the children in the public schools 
some elementary training of the hands and the eyes, than a 
movement began in many places to teach actual trades and 
handicrafts to the children while in school." 2 

The following quotations are typical of this period and show 
the relation which was felt to exist at the time between drawing 
and manual training: 

" Drawing gives the qualifications of a good mechanic except 
the practice. ... In order to more fully carry out the ideas 
involved therein, the board has established a manual training 
school for the more perfect and symmetrical development of 
the hand and the eye." 3 

" Instruction in drawing and the introduction of object teach- 
ing have proved of the greatest advantage, and lead directly 
and naturally to those subjects and methods now under dis- 
cussion. (Manual training.)" 4 

.The Commissioner's report for 1888 gives a table showing 
the status of manual training in the public elementary schools 
of the time. This fact indicates that in fully eighty per cent 
of the cities manual training was introduced after drawing. 5 

Some school reports called the new subject " realized draw- 
ing." Detailed study of the reports of the period indicate very 

3 Clark, Art and Industry, Part I, ix. 

3 Superintendent's Report, Newbury, N. Y., 1885. Quoted from Com- 
missioner of Education Report. 1887, 783. 

4 Course of Study of Board of Education of New York City. Quoted 
from Commissioner of Education Report, 1887, 783. 

'Ibid., 1888, 875- 



34 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

clearly the close relation which existed between the subject of 
drawing and manual training in the mind of the public. 

Effect of Centennial Exhibition 

Attention has already been directed to the stimulus which 
was given the cause of education for industrial purposes by 
the expositions of 185 1, 1867, and 1876. The industrial leaders 
saw in the introduction of industrial art a means of adding to 
the creative ability of the great mass of working men. They 
expected to provide a new lever to be used in the ever-increasing 
struggle for industrial supremacy. In Massachusetts where 
their struggles were felt most keenly, this end was to be 
obtained not only by providing additional instruction for the 
children in the schools, but by the additional provision for the 
producing population in the form of free evening schools. 

The Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876 was of far- 
reaching significance not only in the widespread interest that 
was created in drawing, but here the American public had a 
chance to see the American products in competition with those 
produced in foreign countries. Clarke has called especial atten- 
tion to the significance of the Exhibition relative to the new 
interest created in skillfully made products, in which utility 
was coupled with beauty. 6 In comparison with certain foreign 
goods ours seemed very crude. The interests which had 
watched the progress of England during the period preceding 
were given an additional object lesson in the case of Russia 
and Sweden. " The Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 
1876 was a revelation to the American people, not only of the 
glory of the graphic and plastic arts, as shown by the world's 
great living artists and sculptors and painters ; but, also, of the 
variety and beauty imparted to articles of usefulness and orna- 
ment by the wonderfully artistic weavers, potters and metal- 
workers of the Orient, and by the skilled art workers of 
Europe." 7 

In addition to these products the Russian and Swedish exhibit 
of educational methods involving technical and manual training 
attracted much attention and suggested with renewed emphasis 

'Art and Industry, Part II, LXXXVII-XCVII. 

7 Ibid. Also Mon. 14 in Butler, Education in U. S., 49. 



Manual Training 35 

the possibilities of educational endeavors. Educational writers 
have quite generally noted the spread of interest in manual 
training following the Exposition. Commissioner Brown says : 
" The European manual training exhibits at the Centennial 
Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, gave a strong impetus to a 
movement, already under discussion and even tentatively begun, 
toward the establishment of manual training schools in Amer- 
ican cities." 8 Dexter says of this same influence : "At the same 
exhibition (Centennial) an elaborate display of models illustrat- 
ing the method ('Russian' tool work) was made by the Rus- 
sian school, and we may perhaps date the real beginning of 
educational manual training from that year.'"-' 

Beginnings of Technical Education 

As suggested above there had been comparatively little done 
in this country along the line of technical education. The Rens- 
selaer Polytechnic Institute had been established in 1824 at 
Troy for the purpose of " instructing persons who may choose 
to apply themselves in the application of science to the common 
purposes of life." 10 Little advance was made in the provision 
for this type of instruction during the next forty years. 11 

In 1862 Congress passed the Morrill Act, which made pro- 
vision for the distribution of thirteen millions of acres of land 
for the maintenance of a college in each state. These colleges 
were to be chiefly centers of instruction in the agricultural and 
mechanic arts. They were from the first closely affiliated with 
the manufacturing and agricultural interests. From these insti- 
tutions have gone out a steady stream of men, who have for 
the most part taken their places as officers in the great indus- 
trial army. Their contribution to the modern industrial develop- 
ment has been enormous. 12 

The Worcester Free Institute opened its doors in 1868 with 
this object: "The aim of this school shall ever be the instruc- 
tion of the youth in these branches of education not usually 

8 Brown, Making of Our Middle Schools, 401. 

* Dexter, History of Education in the U. S., 409. 

"Extract from a letter quoted in Dexter, History of Education in the 
United States, 346. 

™Jbid., 344. 

12 Brown, Making of Our Middle Schools, 337. Clarke, Art and In- 
dustry, Part III, X, XL 



36 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

taught in the public schools, which are essential and best adapted 
to train the young for practical life." This school was quick 
to respond to the Russian influence and served to make popular 
the cause of technical education from this standpoint. 

Secondary Manual Training Schools Supported by Economic 

Forces 

Through the influence of the Centennial Exhibition and the 
enthusiastic leadership of C. M. Woodward, a small group of 
interested men provided for the establishment of the St. Louis 
Manual Training School in 1879. This school was of secondary 
grade, the purpose of which, as stated by Woodward, included 
a somewhat broad aim, that made appeal to the educational, 
social, and economic sanction. 13 

In 1884 Baltimore opened the first manual training school in 
the country which was supported and controlled by the public 
school authorities. 14 The argument set forth in the resolution 
of the school committee preceding this establishment was 
economic and social : " It is well known that a number of the 
boys and girls leave the public schools of Baltimore without 
any knowledge of the mechanic arts or other industrial pur- 
suits, and find themselves at once in the front of the realities 
of life, destitute of the means of earning a livelihood ; and that 
it is known that such boys and girls are unable to apply the 
principles taught them to practical advantage in life, and that 
in order to fit them as quickly as possible for self-support, the 
subject be referred to a committee of three for investigation 
and report." 15 

A similar school was started the same year by the Com- 
mercial Club of Chicago. The year following, the Cleveland 
manual training school was incorporated by a group of busi- 
ness men. 16 These schools which were of secondary rank were 
almost wholly established through private initiative operating 
under an economic sanction. They served as models and with 
their exhibits and popular sanction created much enthusiasm for 

13 Woodward, The Manual Training School, 3-1 1. Ham., Manual Train- 
ing, 332-336. 

"Clark, Art and Industry, Part I, 357. 
16 Ibid., Part II, 358. 
"Ibid., Part II, 438-448. 



Manual Training 37 

the movement. The public school authorities soon either as- 
sumed the responsibility for the maintenance of these schools, 
as in the case of Cleveland and Toledo, or established parallel 
courses as in the case of Chicago. 17 Within a short time manual 
training high schools were established in a number of the larger 
cities. 18 

Humanitarian Activities 

Not only did the economic factors accumulate which would 
provide a background for a popular response with the intro- 
duction of manual training, but other forces of a different 
nature were at work. The humanitarian or philanthropic move- 
ments which were instrumental in the organization and main- 
tenance of the public school societies of the early part of the 
century, were still at work. This brought together groups of 
people who were primarily interested in the actual alleviation 
of the distress which had become so apparent under the new 
social order. The problem of life in the city for the poorer 
classes made a constant appeal to these people. This problem 
appeared not only to involve conditions that threatened 
the very institutional life of the country through the 
herding together of masses of unskilled laborers but 
the attendant penury and suffering in the families con- 
cerned also made a vital appeal. Manual labor was one of 
the features of the Fellenburg movement which spread rapidly 
in this country from 1825 to 1840. The promoters of these 
schools hoped to make them in a measure self-supporting by 
having the students do a regular amount of manual labor in 
connection with the school plant. The plan was not unlike 
the one in operation to-day at Tuskegee. The manual side of 
the movement was not altogether successful and soon dropped 
out of these schools except in the case of schools for dependents. 
Nevertheless, their success both in this country and in Europe 
served as a model for continuous imitation. 19 

These schools were better adapted to the protective than to 
the educative types of instruction. Most of the charity schools 
developed during the period and since that time have been of 



11 Ibid., Part II, 669-678. 

" Ibid., 191, 405-428. 

19 Monroe, Text-book in the History of Education, 723-724. 



38 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

this type. The Children's Aid Society, which successfully oper- 
ates similar schools even at the present time, established an 
industrial school as early as 1825. The humanitarian spirit was 
manifest in the establishment of such schools in all parts of 
the country. 

Practical Nature of Instruction in Charity Schools 

Unlike the children in the public schools, these children came 
from homes of about the same social and economic levels. The 
immediate as well as the future needs of these children stood 
out much more definitely than in the case of the public school 
children where home conditions and future occupations range 
through the whole field. Thus the very nature and purpose 
of these mission schools favored variations from type in method 
and in subject matter. Hence it is not surprising that these 
schools were the scenes of early modification toward the ultra- 
practical in education. 

Kitchen Garden Movement 

As a center from which radiated influences which wrought 
great changes in school practice, the Wilson Industrial School 
for girls is an excellent example. This mission school was 
established in 1854 in New York City. 20 From the first the 
work was successful. In 1876 Miss Emily Huntington started 
a movement in this school known as the Kitchen Garden Move- 
ment. This involved a form of industrial training for girls 
which became popular in all parts of the country. Kitchen 
Garden schools were established and a Kitchen Garden journal 
was published. 

Industrial Education Association 

The movement had attained such proportions that by 1884 
the members of the Kitchen Garden Association of New York 
felt the necessity for reorganization on broader terms. The 
famed Industrial Education Association of New York was the 
outcome. Its purpose and plan can best be ascertained from 
their own statement: 



20 Clark, Art and Industry, Part II, 305-306. 



Manual Training 39 

First. To obtain and disseminate information upon industrial 
education and to stimulate public opinion in its favor. 

Second. To invite co-operation between existing organizations 
engaged in any form of industrial training. 

Third. To train women and girls in domestic economy and 
to promote the training of both sexes, in such industries as 
shall enable those trained to become self-supporting. 

Fourth. To study the methods and systems of industrial train- 
ing and secure their introduction into schools ; also when ex- 
pedient to form special classes and schools for such instruction. 

Fifth. To provide instructors for schools and classes and if 
necessary to train teachers for the work. 21 

This was certainly an ambitious and comprehensive program, 
more especially when considered in the light of the fact that 
the movement traced its origin to the mission school. The 
results were phenomenal. All of the recognized channels for 
spreading the influence were utilized. The organization gained 
the prestige which goes with a distinguished list of members 
and officers. The press was utilized to the maximum for pub- 
licity. Scholarly articles appeared in magazines and exhibitions 
were held of products from the various schools in the country, 
to which excursions were run for the purpose of interesting the 
outside school superintendents. 

Pressure for Manual Training in New York City Schools 

Concerning the attempts to get the subject introduced into 
the schools of New York City the following is indicative : 
" Mature deliberation convinced the committee that the best way 
to secure the desired result would be to establish centers where 
by practical experiment the value and feasibility of manual 
training could be demonstrated. Recognizing the power that would 
accrue from such a movement by attempting it at once with 
the public schools of New York City, application was made to 
the Board of Education for the use of a school building one 
afternoon of each week for the purpose of holding classes, 
after the regular school hours, in sewing, domestic economy, 
designing, modelling, simple carpentry, and the use of tools ; 
the Association to assume entire care and expense and the 

21 First Annual Report of the Industrial Education Association, April, 
1885, 31. 



4<d Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

classes to be open at all times to the inspection of teachers 
and instructors of the public schools and members of the Board 
of Education. The petition was signed by prominent citizens, 
representing a variety of influential interests and a strong public 
sentiment in favor of the introduction of manual training." 22 
Not only did this enthusiastic group of leaders realize the 
value which would accrue from having such a powerful example 
for imitation as New York, but they knew how to organize 
their forces in such a way that the appeal would be most 
powerful before the school authorities of this city. 

Introduction in New York Schools 

Although the response was not immediate, it is not surpris- 
ing to find that in 1887 the committee on the course of study 
recommended that the subject be introduced into the schools. 
" Your committee during the deliberation have adopted the fol- 
lowing resolutions: 

Resolved, That the kind of instruction known as manual train- 
ing should be introduced into the primary and grammar schools." 

This was accompanied by a long series of resolutions setting 
forth in detail the plans to be pursued in connection with in- 
struction and administration of the work. Two of these are 
of interest in connection with this study. 

"Resolved, That the instruction in workshop, cooking and sew- 
ing, should be under the direction of special teachers, who 
should be licensed, employed and paid in the manner now pro- 
vided for special teachers. 

Resolved, That to secure efficient instruction an additional 
assistant superintendent should be appointed, whose special duty 
should be to supervise, under the city superintendent, all the 
work in manual training in the Primary and Grammar Schools." 23 

Thus within a period of a little more than two years after 
the organization of this Industrial Association, the introduc- 
tion had been accomplished in the metropolis of the country. 
The student of educational sociology finds in this one of the 
most striking instances of the registration of outside opinion 
upon the curriculum of the schools. 

22 First Annual Report, Industrial Education Association, 1885, Sub- 
committee on Industries. 

23 Quoted in appendix to Art and Industry, 1208. 



Manual Training 41 

Training School for Teachers 

The work of the Industrial Education Association soon de- 
manded a new line of activity. With the enthusiasm which was 
created calls came for teachers. The following is taken from 
the Third Annual Report for the year ending March 31, 1887: 

" During the Winter it became apparent that while the Asso- 
ciation was meeting with no small success in its efforts to 
spread abroad the principles which it advocated,- it was at the 
same time creating a demand for trained teachers, to meet 
which there was an inadequate supply. The question arose 
where and by whom were these teachers to be trained. Mani- 
festly this training should and must be done by the Association. 
It became evident that such a scheme must assume the 
proportions of a training college, needing the guidance of a 
trained and expert educator. A president must be found, and 
a search was at once begun for the right man for the place, 
and this man the Board of Trustees believe it has found in the 
person of Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, the President-Elect." 24 

Thus were the preliminary steps taken in the organization of 
a school which later became Teachers College, Columbia 
University. 

Spread of Influence 

Such zeal coupled with skillful organization and communi- 
cation of purpose was sure of its reward. The enthusiasm was 
contagious and the general plan of organization served as a 
splendid example. Largely through the influence of the New 
York Industrial Association, an Industrial Education Associa- 
tion was formed in New Jersey with the governor of the State 
as the presiding officer. 25 The Industrial Association of Bal- 
timore 26 was organized in 1887 with an imposing list of mem- 
bers. Similar associations were developed in many of the urban 
centers within a short time. Many of the associations which 
had been founded a little earlier for the purpose of agitation 
in favor of kindergartens, now turned their attention to the 
new movement. 27 



"Ibid., Part II, 295. 

26 Ibid., 307-309. 
28 Ibid., 316. 

27 Ibid., 317. 



42 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

Private Initiative in Boston 

The movement in Boston traces its beginning to the estab- 
lishment of the "Whittling School" in 1871. This school, 
which was organized by a few private citizens, attempted to 
acquaint a group of boys with the use of wood-cutting tools. 
The school was operated for five seasons in the chapel of a 
church, at the end of which time it was merged with another 
industrial school which had been similarly formed a little later. 
With the merging of these two schools the Industrial Educa- 
tion Society was formed to take charge of the two schools. 
Sufficient backing was then secured to get the city to grant the 
use of a school room for the work. A definite course of study 
was prepared and the work prospered. 28 

Boston School Committee Assumes Responsibility 

As in the case of the New York association the attempt was 
soon made to get the school to assume the responsibility for the 
work. Concerning these attempts, Superintendent Seaver of the 
Boston Schools says : 

" This Industrial School Association having for several seasons 
successfully conducted schools for instruction in the use of 
wood working tools, and having prepared a manual of proved 
educational value, offered to the Board the use of the apparatus 
and petitioned that the master of the Dwight and Sherwin 
schools be permitted to employ these for the benefit of such 
of these pupils as would in their judgment be best fitted for 
such instruction or most deserving of it. The association 
offered to defray all expenses of the cost of tuition for the 
year. This generous offer was accepted by the Board." 29 

Forces Outside of School Back of Manual Training Movement 

Thus did the economic and humanitarian forces join hands 
in the development of the propaganda. Manual training for 
the secondary schools was perhaps more directly the outcome 
of economic forces, while the agitation in favor of manual 
training for the elementary schools was materially helped by 
the humanitarian forces. It is to be borne in mind that this 
activity was for the most part confined to agencies outside of 
the school group. 

ybid., 13-15. 

29 Report of Boston School Committee, 1882, 16. 



Manual Training 43 

"In most places where the manual training experiment is being 
tried in this country, it is through the philanthropy and gener- 
osity of private individuals. Even where it is closely connected 
with public school systems in several cities, this has been 
brought about largely by private gifts. It has come to certain 
schools and cities as the kindergarten system has come; in 
some places, first through enthusiasm and munificence of private 
individuals, and then, after proving its claim upon all interests, 
it has been gladly adopted by boards of education and supported 
from public funds. Manual training can be thus introduced 
wherever even a few have an appreciation of its benefits and 
can enlist private capital in its behalf. In introducing it in this 
way, what is needed is energy, enthusiasm, conviction, fanati- 
cism, if you will, and money. . . . When manual training is 
to be inaugurated through the majority of the people by taxa- 
tion of themselves, the case is somewhat different. . . . 
This, then, is the first thing to look to — 'the preparation of the 
public mind." 30 

Opposition of Teachers 

The following additional quotation from Superintendent H. W. 
Compton of Toledo is significant of the attitude of the teacher 
toward the whole movement. The fact that Mr. Compton had 
been closely associated with the movement both in the introduc- 
tion in his own city and in the general agitation gives increased 
value to his testimony. " The worst foes of industrial educa- 
tion are those who ought to be its best friends, and they are 
among the teaching force of the country. . . . They would 
like to remain monarchs of all they supervise, and manual work 
seems like an encroachment upon their absolutism and self- 
sufficiency." 31 

The most severe criticism was made on the movement by 
some of the school men. The following from Superintendent 
Marble suggests the point of attack : " The demand for manual 
training does not come from the people for whose children the 
training is designed; it comes chiefly from a class of self-con- 
stituted philanthropists who are intent upon providing the 
' masses ' with an education which shall fit them for their 
sphere." 32 



30 Compton, Circular of Information, United States Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 1889, number 2, 174. 
"Ibid., 175. 
32 Quoted in Art and Industry, Part II, 917. 



44 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

The means utilized to attract attention was also criticized by 
Marble. " The apparent call for such training is created by 
a few voices echoing and re-echoing the refrain and magni- 
fying the few experiments that are being tried into a general 
educational movement. Magazine writers and newspaper para- 
graphers reiterate the same old strains in praise of the little 
shop at Gloucester, the Boston basements and the Toledo move- 
ment just as if they were general and representative." 33 

Relation of Kindergarten Movement to Manual Training 

However, certain forces were operative within the school group 
which did provide a favorable background for the introduction 
of manual training. 

The spread of the kindergarten movement contributed much 
in the matter of the teacher's attitude toward the new subject. 
The philosophy of Froebel which became prevalent with the 
introduction of the kindergarten furnished a basis for the intro- 
duction of manual training which made a fine appeal to the 
educator who had become familiar with this doctrine. The 
doctrine of self-activity gave a new dignity to all forms of 
expression. In his Educational Laws, Froebel said: "At the 
present time Art alone can be truly called free activity, but 
every human work corresponds more or less with creative 
activity, and this is necessary in order to make man the image 
of his Divine Creator — a creator on his own part in 
miniature." 34 

As early as 1878 C. M. Woodward in his famous St. Louis 
address said : " The manual training education which begins in 
the kindergarten before the children are able to read a word, 
should never cease." 35 

Attitude of Felix Adler 

One of the clearest examples of this intimate relation between 
the kindergarten and manual training is in connection with the 
" Workingmen's School " which was opened in 1880 by the 
Ethical Culture Society of New York. The first pamphlet 
issued in 1881 contains this statement: 



33 Report of Schools, Worcester, Massachusetts, li 

3i Froebel, Laws. 

85 Woodward, Manual Training School, 286. 



Manual Training 45 

" The Workingman's School and the Free Kindergarten form 
one institution. The children are admitted at the age of three 
to the Kindergarten. They are graduated from it at six and 
enter the Workingman's School. They remain in the school till 
they are thirteen or fourteen years of age. Thereafter those 
who show decided ability receive higher technical instruction." 36 

Felix Adler, the director, thus outlined his method in his 
widely quoted address given before the Ethical Culture Society, 
New York City, October 24, 1880: 

" We lend moreover an entirely new import to the method of 
industrial education in the school. We are seeking to apply 
the principles which ought to be at the foundation of every 
modern scheme of education : namely, that, as experiment con- 
joined with observation is necessary to the discovery of truth, 
so object creating must supplement object teaching in that re- 
discovery of truths which it is the purpose of all education to 
facilitate." 37 

Of his creative method he says : 

"At present still another step must be taken, viz., from the 
mere observation to the production of things as a means of 
acquiring knowledge; and the taking of this step will mark 
another epoch in pedagogy. Froebel began to apply the prin- 
ciple of the creative method in his kindergarten. But the kin- 
dergarten system covers only three years of the child's life 
while for the school age proper no valuable and tangible formu- 
lation of the creative principle has yet been given. Here the 
work remains to be done and the experiment of which this 
article speaks is an attempt to do it." 38 

Attitude of Nicholas Murray Butler 
As further evidence of the close relation which existed be- 
tween the kindergarten movement and the reception of manual 
training, the words of President Nicholas Murray Butler are 
especially valuable. " Froebel in his kindergarten reduced theory 
to practice and in the kindergarten all manual training as well 
as all rational and systematic education has its basis. But 
Froebel's work did not include the development of a scheme 
of manual training for older pupils. The next step was to 
recognize the unity of principle which underlay the kinder- 



38 Quoted in Art and Industry, Part II, 464. 

37 Quoted in Clark, Art and Industry, Part II, 478. 

88 Princeton Review, March, 1883. 



46 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

garten at one end of the educational scheme and the manual 
training school at the other; it was observed that both recog- 
nized the activities and the expressive powers as well as the 
receptivities and assimilative powers. It was seen that the 
kindergarten and the manual training school were evidences of 
one and the same movement, though appearing at different 
points on the line." 39 

Commentary of United States Commissioner of Education 

Commissioner Dawson, of the United States Bureau of Edu- 
cation, in commenting on this relation said : " It appears to us 
doubtful whether manual training owes more to the kinder- 
garten for theory, or the kindergarten to manual training for 
success. In brief, a series of arguments might be instituted: 
What is manual training as a theory of education without the 
theory of Froebel? Would the kindergarten have progressed 
so fast of late had it not been brought into notice by its ' occu- 
pations ' being adopted by manual training ; and last but not 
least, had manual training been generally understood to mean 
education and not industrial training would it have met with 
such great success ? " 40 

In the light of the foregoing testimony it seems safe to draw 
the conclusion that manual training was modified directly 
through the influence of the prevailing kindergarten theory. 

Manual Training Interpreted in the Light of the Intellectual 
Tradition of the School 

Another factor which tended to influence the attitude of the 
schoolmaster toward manual training was the prevailing psycho- 
logical belief in formal discipline. This doctrine fitted admir- 
ably into the propaganda for a trained hand, eye and brain, 
and did much to provide a popular sanction for the new subject 
within the school. By placing a purely intellectual value on 
this work, instruction in it might be provided without conflict 
with the intellectual traditions of the school. 



39 I02d Annual Report, Regents of New York University, 17-29. 

40 Commissioner's Report, 1888, 820. 



Manual Training 47 

Attitude of Charles W . Eliot and Others 

The following quotations are suggestive of this influence. 
President Eliot in an address before a manual training confer- 
ence held in Boston in 1891 said : 

" Never admit that manual training is anything distinguished 
from or in opposition to mental training. In the skill of the 
artist's hand, in the mechanical, accurate movements of the 
mechanic's arm, in the acute observation through the physician's 
eye or ear, there is always mind. Therefore there is no oppo- 
sition between manual training on the one hand and mental 
training on the other. We are simply training another kind 
of faculty — not memory, but discrimination, observation and 
correct perception." 41 

C. R. Richards said before the same conference : 

" The fitness of every exercise (in manual training) must be 
judged by the degree in which it advances disciplinary or in- 
tellectual ends, and by no other standard." 42 

Daniel Jones, master of the Lowell School of Boston, gave 
utterance to the following, which shows this same determina- 
tion to admit the work only in its intellectual demand : 

" We welcome this manual training just so far as it is an 
educational power and no further. Nothing is to be crowded 
out of the regular school work to give it a place. We want 
no more of it than will awaken the mind and thereby aid in 
developing the intellectual process." 43 

In summarizing the work of this conference Mr. Ames said: 

" It is not possible, I think, that we should get the best results 
out of manual training unless we continually hold manual train- 
ing as one contribution to human advancement, regarding it 
purely according to its educative value. This has been the key- 
note of the conference — a note which needs to be heard far 
and wide and which belongs to each of us to take up and try 
to propagate. Manual training is not simply a provision by 
which the children of the poor shall be put in the way of 
making a living and be serviceable to the community." 44 

Here is the determination expressed to ignore even the hu- 
manitarian value of the subject, in favor of the purely educa- 



" Conference on Manual Training, edited by I. C. Barrows, Boston,. 
1891, 13. 

42 Ibid. } 104. 

43 Ibid., 114. 
"Ibid., 137- 



48 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

tional value. Another view which is quite similar is that which 
follows, taken from one of the tracts of the New York Indus- 
trial Education Association : " Many persons lay great stress 
on the economic and social benefits . . . thus confuse the 
argument for manual training in the schools. . . . The argu- 
ment for manual training in the common schools is psycholog- 
ical and educational. It is not economic or utilitarian." 45 

Refraction of Pressure Resulting from Influence of Schools 
In consideration of the fact that various forces were back 
of this movement which represented fundamentally different 
ideas, interest attaches to the refraction which occurred in 
the work after it came into the control of the school group. 
The following quotation from Professor W. S. Chaplin, who 
was intimately associated with the manual training movement 
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, reveals this difference in concep- 
tion : " The school in Cambridge started under certain dis- 
advantages. . . . The fact was the people did not under- 
stand what the manual training school was. They had an idea 
that it was to be a trade school, and I am not sure but some 
of the managing committee thought it was too. But the school 
has passed out of that condition, and it is a manual training 
school not aiming to make tradesmen, but to educate through 
manual training." 46 

Thus it is seen that the intellectual idea dominated in the 
school when it passed into the hands of the schoolmaster. An- 
other significant illustration of this refraction is in connection 
with the New York Industrial Education Association, which was 
clearly modified through the influence of the educator. Con- 
cerning this change, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, the President 
of the Association, said in his report to the Board of Trustees 
under date of May 4, 1888 : " It is interesting to note that an 
organization founded as a philanthropic enterprise has become a 
great educational force, and has changed its platform of hu- 
manitarianism for one of purely educational reform and ad- 
vancement." 47 



45 Educational Leaflets, No. 1, Nov., 1887, Industrial Education Asso- 
ciation, New York. 

46 Conference on Manual Training, edited by I. C. Barrows, Boston, 
1891, 101. 

47 Quoted in Arts and Industry, Part II, 300. 



Manual Training 49 

The evidence thus points to the conclusion that the pressure 
generated by economic and humanitarian forces was clearly 
modified to conform to the intellectual ideals of the schoolroom. 
The economic forces worked from the higher schools down- 
ward; the humanitarian forces worked from the lower schools 
upward; the educational forces provided a background for a 
favorable reception for the whole range of school life but 
demanded that the end set up should be in conformity with the 
traditions of the schoolroom. The fact that these forces were 
bound up in this movement gave the subject a three-fold hear- 
ing. It was possible to make an appeal on the basis of an 
economic, humanitarian, or educational sanction. As a result 
the spread of the subject has been very rapid since 1889-1890. 48 

Administration 

Special teachers or supervisors have been almost exclusively 
in charge of this work in the various city systems. In the high 
school these teachers have borne the same relation to the schools 
as that of any departmental teacher. In the elementary grades 
the custom has been to set off a stated number of periods per 
month for this work. Special instructors have either worked 
in a " central " shop, or have gone from building to building 
to give this instruction. 49 Thus the regular teacher has not 
been required to assume the responsibility for instruction in 
this subject, except in rare cases. 

Summary 

With the change in social and economic conditions industrial 
forces became interested in improving the productivity of the 
artisan. 

The industrial art drawing which had already received con- 
sideration seemed to lead logically to work in manual training. 

The Centennial Exhibition served to direct attention to foreign 
skill and the educational means used in its development. 

Technical education which was directed by economic forces 
extended downward into the high schools. The humanitarian 



See Commissioner of Education Report, 1889 et seq. 
See Chapter XL 



50 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

forces directed their attention to education in the lower schools 
in favor of a more practical type of instruction. 

Outside organizations, largely humanitarian in nature, sprang 
up in New York, Boston, New Jersey, and elsewhere, bringing 
such pressure to bear on the public schools in favor of manual 
training that widespread introduction followed. 

The " creative " activity and the philosophy underlying the 
kindergarten, provided a favorable background for manual 
training, considered as a purely " educative " means. The pre- 
vailing psychological belief and the traditions of the school 
resulted in the refraction of the movement. There developed a 
tendency to interpret manual training in the light of intellectual 
rather than humanitarian or economic values. 

The practice of employing special teachers or supervisors of 
this subject has been almost universally adopted. 



CHAPTER V 
DOMESTIC SCIENCE 

Decline of Home Industries 

A study of the pressure back of the introduction of sewing 
and cooking into the public school curriculum directs attention 
to the changes in the economic and social life of the nineteenth 
century. The growth of purely industrial activities and the 
general rise of manufacturing, brought, as we have seen in an 
earlier section, a complete revolution in the lives of the working 
men. Specialization took place to an extent undreamed of in 
the earlier days of home industry. The division of labor which 
was made possible with urbanization soon made itself felt in 
the lives of the women also. 

This operated in two ways. On the outside new oppor- 
tunities were provided that made it possible for a woman to 
earn a wage at other than domestic work. On the inside the 
changes in the household economy released thousands of girls 
from the necessities of home duties. A moment's retrospect 
covering the work of our grandmothers reveals the great num- 
ber of household duties that have dropped out entirely in urban 
centers and have almost disappeared among rural groups. These 
duties included carding, spinning, weaving for wearing apparel, 
floor covering, draperies, linens. Preparation of food, in the 
old days, also involved everlasting labor of the most exacting 
nature. Modern civilization has worked a tremendous change. 
Factory products have invaded the home, with clothing, cover- 
ings, draperies, prepared food and wonderful time and labor 
saving devices. With this change there has come the release 
of girls and women from the home duties. With the rise of 
ready-made garments home needlework declined. Although 
women were still in a large measure the ones who worked on 
these garments, the work was carried on outside the home and 
was done in connection with power machinery accompanied by 

5i 



52 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

great specialization. Under the new regime raw materials were 
no longer taken into the home. The finished products were 
attainable indirectly through purchase, which necessitated money. 
With this change new economic pressures developed which 
forced women to transfer their scene of activity and to become 
wage earners. 1 

New Opportunities for Women outside the Home 
On the outside a multitude of openings developed which made 
it possible for a woman to earn the wage. The specialization 
of the factory provided thousands of places for women. The 
development of the public school system opened up new avenues 
of activity which made an especial appeal to the women who 
were inclined toward scholarly pursuits. Modern trade condi- 
tions have provided a vast number of positions for girls and 
women in shops and offices. Thus economic conditions have 
brought about conditions that have opened up fields for women 
covering a wide range of activities. Necessity born of changed 
social and economic pressures has been met on the outside with 
such a variety of openings that woman has quickly made herself 
a permanent part of the wage-earning class. 

Early Attempts to Meet This Situation 
This readjustment has been accompanied by much distress 
and many misgivings have been entertained as to the ultimate 
social effect of the change. The decline in knowledge of the 
old fashioned domestic virtue of sewing has been more or less 
seriously resisted for a long time by persons who were inter- 
ested in social welfare. At a later date this concern included 
cooking, while to-day it covers the whole field of domestic 
economy and the household arts. 

As evidence of this resistance we find that as early as 1835 
the ladies of the Seameen's Aid Society petitioned the School 
Board of Boston praying that needlework might be taught to 
the girls in the grammar school. The Board adopted the fol- 
lowing resolution in response to the request: 

Resolved, That the girls of the second and third classes, who 
attend the public writing schools of this city, may be instructed 

1 Carlton, Education and Industrial Evolution. Dean, The Worker and 
the State. 



Domestic Science 53 

by the female instructors of said schools in plain sewing, one 
hour in the afternoon of every school day. 2 

This, as well as the earlier recognition which concerned only 
the primary schools (1821), resulted in little. This is not sur- 
prising as the provision was only permissive. The earlier 
recommendation was hardly that as is seen from the following: 

"The Committee particularly recommends that instructors shall 
employ the girls occasionally (especially those of the first class) 
in sewing and knitting, so far as the same shall not interfere 
with their progress and learning." 3 

" In 1854, renewed interest in the subject was manifested, 
and a petition, signed by thirty-nine hundred and forty-seven 
women of Boston, requesting that sewing might be introduced 
into all grammar schools for girls, was presented. The special 
committee to whom the subject was referred reported that they 
believed the usefulness of the schools would be enhanced by the 
proposed change and that no girl would be considered properly 
educated who could not sew." 4 

Not only did this spirit of philanthropic or humanitarian 
endeavor manifest itself in the form of petitions to the school 
authorities but through private initiative and private support 
instruction was carried on in many schools. Concerning this, 
the New Haven Superintendent, S. T. Dutton, said : " I cannot 
refrain from expressing the high opinion I have formed of the 
endeavors so long and perseveringly carried on to teach sewing 
to poor and neglected children in our ungraded schools. The 
fact that for nearly a quarter of a century philanthropic ladies 
have been encouraged to carry on the work, asking no aid from 
the public funds, is to me sufficient proof of its genuineness." 6 

Early Sanction 

The arguments back of these efforts were for the most part 
social and economic. The following perhaps represents the 
prevailing view. " The arguments adduced in support of the 
measure were: That the teaching of sewing is greatly neglected 
in a large number of families in the community, especially 
among the poorer class; that this ignorance is one cause of the 
unthrift and ragged shiftlessness of many homes ; that it pre- 

2 Quoted in Barrows, Conference of Manual Training, Boston, 1891, 160. 

3 Quoted in Barnard's Journal, 1869, 471. 

4 Barrows, Manual Training Conference, Boston, 1891, 160. 
e Report of Schools, New Haven, Connecticut, 



54 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

vents many girls who wish to go out to service from obtaining 
any except the lowest places ; that it increases the cost of living 
to the poor; because they are not able to repair their clothing 
that the untidiness, which is its consequence, breaks down self- 
respect." 16 

The following quotation from Frances Walker also bears 
upon the social sanction for this work : " We are threatened 
to-day in the United States with the lowering of the standard 
of living, and with the impairment of the sense of social de- 
cency, which would altogether constitute a greater industrial and 
political evil than we have known. All the letters that ever 
were taught in our public schools will not do so much to 
oppose and counteract the unfortunate liabilities as the two arts 
of sewing and cooking, properly taught under the authority 
of the State." 

Relation of Sewing to Industrial Art Drawing 

With the rise of the movement for industrial education which 
culminated in the introduction of industrial art drawing, sewing 
received much attention. The special committee on industrial 
schools of the Boston schools treated the subject thus (1870) : 
" Every year more girls are educated for teachers than can find 
places in the schools. Every year the girls who can never 
become successful teachers even if they find situations, are in- 
structed in what can be of no essential benefit to them in after- 
life. They leave the schools and many of them are absolutely 
unqualified to obtain their living in any employment that requires 
specific skill. Many of them could not get their support by 
plain sewing; very many of them could not even mend their 
own clothes. If in connection with their intellectual training, 
they had been taught something which had a direct bearing 
upon practical life, a more useful and happy career would be 
open to them. . . . Such a training as educates young ladies 
to be teachers merely and leads them to look upon other occu- 
pations as degrading, is surely not the training belonging to us, 
a sensible free-working community. Labor can be raised in 
public estimation only by being made a part of the public 
education." 7 



6 Harrington, Annual Report of Schools, New Bedford, Mass., 188 

7 Report of Boston School Committee, 1870, Industrial Committee. 



Domestic Science 



55 



The committee closed their report with elaborate recommen- 
dations in favor of an extension of sewing instruction, which 
should be made obligatory in all grammar schools for girls. 

Private Support in Boston 

Owing to the legal difficulties which developed in connection 
with the employment of special teachers of sewing, these recom- 
mendations did not become effective for several years. In the 
interim Mrs. Augustus Hemenway, a public-spirited citizen, 
came to the rescue with a contribution of personal funds, thus 
affording another illustration of the dependence of the school 
upon the generosity and enthusiasm of private citizens in con- 
nection with the extension of the curriculum. 8 In 1876 the 
Legislature of Massachusetts enacted a law which authorized 
the teaching of sewing " in any city or town, and in all the 
public schools in which the school committee of said city or 
town deemed it expedient. 9 With this authority the Board 
assumed the responsibility for instruction in this subject. The 
advanced stand of Boston in this connection served as a stimulus 
for action elsewhere, as was shown by the fact that Boston's 
example was cited quite generally in the later appeals for public 
school instruction in this subject. Superintendent MacAlister of 
Philadelphia referred to it thus in 1884: " But the teaching of 
sewing is not to be regarded as a mere experiment. Boston 
furnishes an example where it is carried on upon a large scale, 
. . . and a report made to the school committee upon the 
subject contains important testimony as to the value of the 
study." 10 

Relation of Sezving to Manual Training 

While it is true that much of the interest in manual training 
centered around manual work for boys, nevertheless the girls 
came in for a share of consideration. Indeed some of the 
manual training enthusiasm for boys was an outgrowth of 
earlier efforts for girls — a notable example in this connection 
is the Kitchen Garden movement which, as was stated in an 



8 Philbrick, Circular of Information, U. S. Bureau of Education, 1885, 
91-95. 
8 Ibid., 94. 
10 First Report of MacAlister, quoted in Art and Industry, Part II, 1178. 



5O Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

earlier chapter, was a progenitor of the New York Industrial 
Education Association. This movement was started in 1876 
by Miss Emily Huntington, a teacher in the Wilson Industrial 
School for Girls of New York City. Miss Huntington adapted 
the kindergarten methods and devices to the task of teaching 
the girls the duties of the home. While sewing did not receive 
as much attention as did some of the other phases of house- 
keeping, it came in for its share in the later development of 
the movement. The Kitchen Garden, which suggested the aim 
as well as the method, met with a popular response. 

Indeed, the movement grew so rapidly that it became neces- 
sary to take additional steps to direct it. In January, 1880, 
the Kitchen Garden Association was formed for the purpose 
of wider diffusion of knowledge relative to the system, greater 
uniformity as to the method in the various schools, and to 
secure its perpetuation. The following statement of purpose is 
taken from the first annual report of the Association: 

" It is the desire of its managers to carry the system into every 
industrial and public school. The necessity for such an educa- 
tion is becoming more and more apparent, as they become better 
acquainted with the ways of living among the poor. The teach- 
ing of the girl of to-day is not in the direction of household 
industry. Girls having gone through the public and normal 
schools look down upon housework as debasing, and almost 
invariably they seek positions in stores as clerks, saleswomen, 
cashiers or bookkeepers. This avenue of employment is rapidly 
becoming overcrowded with applicants. . . . It is to this 
work of industrial education that the Kitchen Garden Associa- 
tion has addressed itself, and it has adopted, as its method of 
work, the Kitchen Garden system." 11 

Especial attention is directed to the sanctions involved in 
the foregoing statement of purpose. The people back of this 
movement certainly looked definitely to the restoration of domes- 
tic arts, for social and economic reasons. It is strikingly similar 
to the statement set forth by the Boston School Committee of 
1870 quoted above. 

The interest continued to grow, but closer contact with the 
work led the leaders to realize the presence of neglected fields 
of opportunity. This became so apparent that the Association 
in 1884 reorganized under a broader plan, the outcome of which 

11 Ibid., Part II, 258. 



Domestic Science 57 

was an organization along the lines of the manual training 
movement, namely, the New York Industrial Association con- 
cerning which a rather full account has already been given. 
Under the new influence the agitation for sewing took the form 
of manual training for girls. This was so recognized by the 
Board of Education in New York City when manual training 
was recommended for adoption. 12 

Spread of Influence 

Concerning the spread of the influence of the Kitchen Garden 
movement the Secretary, Miss Grace H. Dodge, wrote in 1884: 
" The system during these years has spread in a remarkable 
manner, not only in different parts of this country, but also in 
Europe, and other quarters of the world. There are kitchen 
gardens in Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Boston, 
and Yonkers. The second named issues a monthly Kitchen 
Garden Journal with a good circulation." 13 

These local organizations wielded much pressure on the schools 
and contributed not a little to the introduction of special in- 
struction for the girls along the lines of the parent association. 
The following is an account of their activity in Cleveland : 

" In the fall of 1884, a few young ladies, possessed of com- 
mendable missionary spirit, opened a kitchen garden in one of 
the basement rooms of Unity Church, about twenty pupils being 
in attendance. The school grew and prospered beyond expecta- 
tion, so that early in 1886 it was found necessary, in order 
to extend the work so as to meet the demands, to organize on 
a more permanent basis. The ' Cleveland Domestic Training 
Association ' was the result. In February of this year the 
cooking class was formed and opened at number 479 Superior 
street, seventy girls being enrolled the first term. By permission 
of the Board of Education free classes were formed from the 
pupils of the Rockwell school. More than seventy pupils de- 
sired to enter, but less than fifty could be accommodated. In 
September, 1887, the cooking department of the Association 
became a regular branch of the Cleveland manual training 
school." 14 

The foregoing is another striking instance of means used in 
transferring the responsibility of a new subject of instruction 

12 See account of this given in chapter on manual training. 

13 Fourth Annual Report Kitchen Garden Association, 2. 

" Quoted from a letter from the Superintendent of Cleveland schools, 
in Pennsylvania Industrial Commission Report, 1889, 406. 



58 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

to the general public. The outside group first assume all ex- 
pense. Later the school authorities give permissive authority 
for instruction, followed by the complete recognition of the 
subject. In Philadelphia the Public Education Association 
was back of the movement which led to the introduction of 
sewing into the Normal School in 1881 and later (1883) into 
the Grammar School. This Association which was an offshoot 
of the Society for Organizing Charity has had a great influence 
on the schools of that city, and has served as a medium through 
which the changing social pressures have been transmitted to the 
school authorities. 15 

Private Initiative in Cooking Schools of Boston 
The introduction of sewing was quickly followed by agitation 
in favor of cooking. The influence of private initiative and 
experiment is here also manifest. The leadership of Boston in 
this particular was likewise significant. The Boston Cooking 
Classes were founded and supported by Mrs. Augustus Hemen- 
way, who had already been active in the ultimate introduction 
of sewing into the schools. The following is an extract from 
a paper entitled "A Review of two years' work in the public 
cooking school " prepared by Miss Amy Morris Homans and 
read before the Industrial Educational Association of Baltimore, 
in 1887: 

" In the summer of 1883, an Industrial Vocation School was 
opened in the Starr King Schoolhouse for the purpose, not of 
keeping girls out of the streets, nor of pleasantly entertaining 
them within doors, but of finding out, if possible, by practical 
experiments, if there were any sort of manual training impor- 
tant for every girl regardless of her social position, to have, 
and, finding this out, to ask the privilege of trying this experi- 
ment in connection with the Public Schools, with the hope that 
ultimately it should be made a part of this curriculum, upon 
the ground that for any instruction of general utility the public 
money may legitimately be expended. The industrial school 
was continued during the summers of 1883 and 1884. . . . 
In September, 1885, a hearing was given to persons interested 
in industrial training, and at that hearing those interested asked 
. . . . leave to maintain a cooking school which should be 
attended by one hundred and fifty girls from the South End 
Grammar Schools, and which should be known as Boston 

" Harley, History of the Public Education Association of Philadelphia. 



Domestic Science 59 

School Kitchen, No. 1, as it would be the first Kitchen in any 
public school house in the United States. The proposition was 
received with kindly favor and in the School Committee meet- 
ing, October 27, 1885, it was voted to permit girls to attend the 
Boston School Kitchen, No. 1, provided that the parents or 
guardians of the pupils should so request in writing, the pupils 
to attend on probation. . . ." 16 

The following year another school was started under the 
name of Boston School Kitchen, No. 2, which was also main- 
tained and managed by the city. 17 

Private Initiative in Cooking Schools of Philadelphia 

In Philadelphia the same general tactics were pursued. Su- 
perintendent MacAlister in his report for 1888 gives full credit 
for the introduction of cookery, to the Public Education Asso- 
ciation. The following account of the early steps is given by 
Harley : 

"At a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Association, 
February 9, 1885, it was resolved that a committee of three 
be appointed to confer upon the introduction of cooking into 
the Normal School. There were a number of conferences on 
the subject with the committee of the Board of Education, and 
Mrs. Julia Corson, of New York, was invited to give demon- 
strations in the teaching of cooking. Great interest was shown 
in this subject by many of the most prominent people in Phila- 
delphia. On January 8, 1886, Mrs. J. Lippincott opened her 
residence for a concert by amateurs for the benefit of the Public 
Education Association Cooking Fund, and a considerable sum 
was realized. Early in 1887 the Board of Education decided to 
place cooking in the Normal School to take the place of mythol- 
ogy. Two rooms in the basement were given for the purpose 
and the Association paid for the plant. The Association also 
volunteered to contribute fifteen hundred dollars to meet the 
expenses of the school in cooking for the season of 1887- 
88. . . ," 18 

These illustrations are simply typical of the means used and 
the agencies back of the introduction of this work for the girls. 
The same general forces back of the movement in New York, 
Cleveland, Philadelphia and Boston, were active all over the 
country. Skillful organizations created such pressure that sew- 

18 Baltimore Sun, November 2, 1887. 

17 Ibid. 

18 Harley, History of Public Education Association of Philadelphia, 21. 



60 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

ing and cooking gained a recognition in the curriculum which 
has proved permanent. Among the institutions that have con- 
tributed much to this end should be mentioned the Young 
Woman's Christian Association, Women's Clubs of the Coun- 
try, and Home Economics Association. 19 

Modification after Fusion zvith Manual Training Movement 
The foregoing quotations also indicate that the school was 
being continuously subjected to outside pressure which de- 
manded a more practical type of instruction for the girls. In- 
terest was aroused and money contributed in order that the 
girls from the homes of the lower economic levels might be 
fitted for better service either as domestic servants or as house- 
keepers. The work later became identified with the manual 
training movement and as such was supported by the manual 
training arguments. With this came a wider diffusion of in- 
struction which reached children of varying social and economic 
levels. Also under the influence of the manual training idea, 
the Kitchen Garden Association became the Industrial Educa- 
tion Association. The following account of the extension of 
the work was given by Mrs. R. D. RickofF before the National 
Education Association in 1887: 

" In the city of New York there was started a little school 
called the ' Kitchen Garden ' in which the children of the poor 
were taught housework, and as the work extended there came 
a cry that these children were being trained for servants, and 
a company of wise women under the name of the Industrial 
Education Association of the City of New York took up the 
question in this way : into the fashionable boarding schools they 
introduced the subjects of sewing and cooking, taught by the 
same teachers who taught the poor; and now the question is 
which one is to be the mistress and which one the maid." 20 

Attitude of the School toward Domestic Science 
Interest attaches to the attitude of the school toward Domes- 
tic Science instruction. Superintendent Philbrick expressed the 
opposition of the teacher toward the introduction of sewing in 
Boston thus : " It was the force of public opinion and a very 



"Spec. Report, English Bd. of Ed., XV. Reports of Lake Placid 
Conference. 
J0 Proc. N. E. A., 1887, 227-230. 



Domestic Science 61 

good public opinion too, which caused the introduction of sewing 
in opposition to the general wishes of the teachers, and for one 
I frankly confess that I hope public opinion will go much 
further in this direction." 21 

Many of the leaders of educational thought of the time seemed 
to catch more of the spirit of the practical demand in this con- 
nection than in the case of some of the other special subjects. 
True they attempted to justify the work on psychological 
grounds, but the practical side was not lost sight of. This 
double purpose is brought out in the following quotation from 
Superintendent MacAlister of the Philadelphia Schools : " I be- 
lieve that instruction in sewing could prove useful in two ways : 
first, in providing a means of manual training for girls, that 
could not fail to supply a want long felt in the schools ; and 
second, by providing an opportunity for acquiring an accomplish- 
ment of advantage to every woman in the practical duties of 
life." 22 

Intellectual Value Emphasised 

The tendency to justify the work on intellectual grounds was 
however manifest in the reports and addresses of the day. The 
following quotations are typical of the expressions of this idea: 

" The commercial value of sewing must be small and even its 
domestic value, except in certain forms, is not what it was 
thirty years ago ; but the habits of attention which it engenders, 
facilitated by having something tangible to attend to and its 
peculiar character as a feminine occupation eminently fit it 
for the manual training for girls." 23 

" The moral and economic reasons for the instruction of the 
hand work have been already presented in a condensed form. 
Still another may be added that is directly in line of mental 
education. Every sewing lesson is a positive objective lesson 
of the most excellent description, because it combines so many 
points of instruction. It trains the sight to accuracy of obser- 
vation, and the touch to nicety of manipulation. It calls the 
perceptive faculties, those of form, place, order, color, into 
active play and drill. It moreover puts the inventive faculties 
into profitable activity." 24 

" But we are not driven to defend the introduction of cooking 
into the public schools, as an invasion of the proper field of 

21 Report of School Committee, Boston, 1869. 
"Quoted in Art and Industry, Part II, 1178-1179. 

23 Dawson, in Commissioner of Education Report, 1887, 876. 

24 Harrington, Annual Report, New Bedford, Mass., 1882. 



62 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

education, justified by due necessity. No one can spend an hour 
in the cooking schools of Boston . . . without being im- 
pressed by the very high educative value of the instruction given. 
The short course, which alone the means at command allowed 
to be given to each class of girls, has constituted, I do not doubt, 
the best body of purely educational training which any girl of 
all those classes ever experienced within the same number of 
hours." 25 

It is thus seen that sewing was subjected to the same intel- 
lectual interpretation which was given to the manual training 
work. The schoolmaster in both instances felt the necessity 
of justifying the new work on the basis of the traditional 
mental value of the schoolroom. It is true that in some in- 
stances the work was undertaken in the spirit of its origin. 
As an example of the benevolent point of view the following 
statement is taken from the report of the committee on sewing 
in the schools of Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1879: 

" Our domestics are most frequently useless for plain sewing 
and mending; and even the parish sewing circle of the present 
shows a lamentable lack in this essential art. If brought into 
school practice as a part of a regular discipline, sewing carries 
its civilizing influence directly home; . . . again the sewing 
hours should bring a cheerful rest, not of idleness, but of change : 
a glad sense of business should abound. The souls of children 
are in sunshine when their hands are understandingly employed. 
A little colored boy in Dix Street School stitching and hemming 
a coarse brown night cap for his dear old Grandma brightened 
a whole room." 26 

Such a picture needs no comment. 

Sewing and Cooking Less Refracted by Schoolroom Traditions 
than Manual Training 
Thus we reach the conclusion that sewing and cooking owe 
their place in the school in a large measure to the benevolent 
interest which was aroused by the change in the social and 
economic condition of the people. This work has been subject 
to a certain refraction within the schoolroom owing to the 
conflict with the intellectual purpose and traditions of the school. 
This refraction has been less, however, than in the case of 
manual training, because of the possibility of a wider application 

25 Walker, Proc. N. E. A., 1887, 196-205. 

38 Report of Massachusetts Board of Education, 1879, Appendix E. 



Domestic Science 63 

of the subject taught. Sewing and cooking have been so inti- 
mately associated with the lives of women that popular sanction 
favors a practical skill in these arts. Such is not the case with 
any one of the lines of manual training for boys. 27 

Administration 

The prevailing means of securing and directing instruction 
in domestic science has been the employment of special teach- 
ers or supervisors, who have taken in the main the entire re- 
sponsibility of this work. 28 

Summary 

The changing economic and social conditions of the last cen- 
tury were paralleled by a decline in the industries of the home. 
As the significance of these changes became more apparent, 
the humanitarian interests of the period united in the attempt 
to correct certain tendencies. This very early took the form 
of a demand for formal instruction for girls in certain house- 
hold arts. 

Through skillful organization and agitation, pressure was 
brought to bear upon the schools which resulted in the wide- 
spread introduction of sewing and cooking. 

The traditions of the school were such that the intellectual 
value received especial emphasis, although the practical ends 
involved were so imminent that the refraction in these subjects 
was made less than in the case of manual training. 



Ravenhill, Spec. Rept. Eng. Bd. of Ed., XV, 19-20. 
See Chapter XI. 



CHAPTER VI 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION 

Early Attitude 

Popular interest in physical education is of comparatively 
recent date, although there has been more or less agitation in 
this connection from the very beginning of educational history. 
This early interest centered around the idea of getting exercise 
by means of work, although certain recognition was given to 
free exercise. The following quotation from Benjamin Franklin 
suggests a type of physical work which sounds quite like that 
recommended to-day : " That the boarding scholars diet together, 
plainly, temperately and frugally; that to keep them in health, 
and to strengthen and to render active their bodies, they be 
frequently exercised in running, leaping, wrestling and swim- 
ming." 1 

Although Franklin was intimately associated with the educa- 
tional affairs of the time, there is little evidence to be found 
to indicate that any practical step was taken to carry out these 
proposals. 

Exercise through Work 

In 1790, Noah Webster in his address to young gentlemen 
gave expression to this sentiment : " Where it is not the lot of 
a young person to labor in agriculture or mechanic arts some 
laborious amusement should constantly and daily be pursued 
as a substitute." 2 

In the same year Dr. Benjamin Rush of Philadelphia in "An 
Essay on Amusements and Punishments proper for Boys," 
called attention to the desirability of having the youth take 
exercise in the form of work which would fit into their future 
lives. " In the Methodist College in Maryland a large lot is 

1 Proposals relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania. Ben- 
jamin Franklin in Smyth, Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin, 11,300. 

2 Quoted by Hartwell, in a paper read before Amer. Assn. for Advance- 
ment of Physical Ed., 1892. Page 23 of Proc. of A. A. A. P. E., 1902. 

64 



Physical Education 65 

divided among the scholars and premiums are adjudged to those 
who raise the most vegetables." ..." The Methodists have 
banished every species of play from their college." 3 

It is to be expected that in a time when there was so much 
physical work to do, little attention would be given to exercise 
that was either artificially stimulated or in which the spirit of 
play dominated. It is also to be borne in mind that there was 
little opportunity for sedentary life. Agriculture, which was the 
dominant industry, certainly provided for a full round of physi- 
cal exercise. The home industries of the time also necessi- 
tated a wide range of bodily activities. Nor were the luxuries 
sufficiently refined to enable one to get through the day without 
putting forth a large measure of purely physical exertions. 

Under these rigorous conditions it is not surprising to find 
that the first scattering recognition of a need for exercise should 
take the form of military exercise or of manual labor in schools. 

Jefferson's Military Ideal 

In this connection Thomas Jefferson's recommendation in the 
" Rockfish Gap Commission," which was preliminary to the 
foundation of the University of Virginia, is of interest. " These 
exercises (Gymnastics) with ancient nations constituted the prin- 
cipal part of the education of their youth. Their arms and 
mode of warfare rendered them severe in the extreme; ours 
on the same correct principle, should be adapted to our arms 
and warfare; and its manual exercises, military maneuvers, and 
tactics generally should be the frequent exercise of the stu- 
dents in their hours of recreation. It is at that age of aptness, 
docility, and emulation of the practices of manhood that such 
things are soonest learned and longest remembered. The use 
of tools too, in the manual arts is worthy of encouragement, 
by facilitating, to such as choose it, an admission in the neigh- 
boring workshop." 4 

Although practically nothing came directly from this recom- 
mendation it shows the recognition of the need and the argu- 
ment back of one form of exercise. 
— 

3 Rush, Essays Literary, Moral and Philosophical : Quoted in Hartwell, 
Circular of Information, U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 5, 1885, 16. 

* Quoted in Circular of Information, U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 2, 
1888, 93. 



66 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

Military Academies 
Captain Alden Partridge who was for a time associated with 
the military academy at West Point, was an enthusiastic leader 
in the movement in favor of military drill. In 1820, he gave 
expression in his lecture on education to the following: 

"Another defect in the present system is the entire neglect in 
all our principal seminaries of physical education. ... It 
is from a want of this (a regular and systematic course of 
exercise for the preservation of health) that so many of our 
most promising youths lose their health by the time they are 
prepared to enter in the grand theatre of useful and active life." 5 

As a means of meeting this difficulty Partridge founded the 
American Literary, Scientific and Military Academy at Nor- 
wich, Vermont. In addition to the literary and military fea- 
tures, due recognition was given to the utiliarian side of manual 
labor. "Another portion of their time should be devoted to 
practical agricultural pursuits. ... To the institution 
should be attached a range of mechanic's shops." 

This need of physical education coupled with the fresh recol- 
lection of the recent military struggle provided a background 
for a popular acceptance of military training as a desirable 
means of making provision for both exigencies. The continued 
success of the military academy in this country is a testimony 
of the public approval of such an institution even to the present 
time. 

German Gymnastics 

With the advent of the German influence about the close of 
the first quarter of the last century came renewed attentions to 
the physical side of education. 7 

Round Hill School which was started at Northampton, Massa- 
chusetts in 1825, represented the first fruits of travel in Ger- 
many by American educators. The School was patterned after 
the German. 8 

Mr. Charles Beck, a former pupil of Father Jahn, introduced 
the German system of free gymnastics. As a result of the politi- 
cal difficulties in the Fatherland a number of highly educated 

"Quoted in Barnard's American Journal of Education, vol. XIII, 58. 
'Ibid., 61. 

7 Ibid., vol. XV, 233-234 ; vol. XXV, CXV. 

8 Hinsdale, Commissioner of Education Report, 1897-1898, vol. I. 



Physical Education 67 

German Turners came to this country within the next year or 
two, and contributed much to the popular interest in this form 
of exercise. One of these men, Dr. Charles Follen, was placed 
in charge of the newly established gymnasium at Harvard. 9 
In July of the same year a mass meeting of citizens was held 
in Boston for the purpose of promoting gymnastic exercise, 
which resulted in the establishment of the Boston Gymnasium. 
In their statement of purpose we find that they intended to 
make the gymnasium " a department of public education, under 
the patronage of the city." 10 German influence prevailed in the 
leadership of Dr. Follen and later Dr. Leibler. At first the 
results were satisfying and the influence spread rapidly, but it 
proved impossible to transplant the German system of gymnas- 
tics from the social and political setting from which it sprang. 
In the Fatherland the whole movement was interwoven with 
the dreams of the political ideals of the time. Even those who 
came over to direct the movement after it was shorn of these 
vitalizing forces soon lost interest. 11 By 1830 the wave of 
interest had spent itself. 

Fellenberg Movement 

In the meantime interest had increased in another foreign 
idea, known as the Fellenberg experiment, reference to which 
has already been made in connection with the chapters on 
manual training and domestic science. Much faith was manifest 
in this means of providing a practical sort of physical exercise. 
This appealed to a more popular sanction than did the gymnastic 
exercise. Concerning this, the following quotation is suggestive 
from Thomas Weld, a leader in the cause of manual labor 
schools (1832): "Gymnastic exercises excite aversion and con- 
tempt in the public mind. The people are disgusted and repelled 
by the grotesque and ludicrous antics of the gymnasium. They 
say ' leave wooden horses to children and monkey tricks to 
monkeys.' " 12 

8 Boykin, Commissioner of Education Report, 1891-1892, vol. I, 503. 
Hartwell, Proc. A. A. A. P. E., 1892, 26-28. 

10 Commissioner of Education Report, 1891-1892, 504; also Barnard, 
American Journal of Education, XV, 334. 

u Boykin, Ibid., 502-506. Hartwell, Circular of Information, U. S. 
Bureau of Education, No. 5, 1885, 21-24. 

12 Quoted in Commissioner of Education Report, 1891-1892, I, 509. 



68 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

This type of schools made an especially strong appeal to the 
men in charge of theological schools. The following is a quotation 
from a set of resolutions adopted at a meeting held in New 
York, 1831. This meeting had been called to discuss "the sub- 
ject of introducing manual labor into literary institutions as a 
system of exercise for students." " It is indispensable that a 
well regulated system of exercise should be introduced into all 
places of education, . . . that manual labor ought, as far 
as possible, to be introduced in literary institutions as a means 
of promoting health, diminishing the expense of education and 
cultivating all those qualities in a minister of the Gospel, which 
the nature of his office requires and the exigencies of the present 
age most loudly demands." 13 

The movement was very popular for the next decade and 
scores of institutions were established throughout the country. 
However, the distinctive features soon disappeared in all except 
the charity schools. 14 They at last recognized that work had its 
limitations as a form of exercise for mental workers. 

Physiology and Hygiene 

Meantime the study of physiology and hygiene was growing 
in popular interest in this country and in Europe. Although 
this included more than mere exercise of the body, yet this 
came in for its full share of attention. This was accompanied 
by the rise of sporadic systems of exercise which were sup- 
posed to have wonderful formative and curative effects. The 
credulity of the public in this particular was not unlike that 
which has been manifested in certain quarters within recent 
years. Some of the " Professors " were no doubt self-deluded ; 
other were quacks pure and simple. 

It is interesting to note that there were men who saw the 
fallacies both in the manual labor and in the pure exercise pro- 
paganda even at this early date. In an address before the 
American Institute of Instruction in 1836, Dr. W. A. Alcott 
said : " I would, however, lay down one rule which is applicable 
to all places, cases and circumstances. Exercise to be useful 
to pupils should be such as will call off the mind from its 



13 Ibid., 507. 
11 Ibid., 506-510. 



Physical Education 69 

common pursuits or studies. It is not sufficient to exercise the 
muscles ; the mind too must be exercised and amused. I would 
not say that it is of no use to saw wood or to walk to a certain 
corner, or a certain post every day. I believe that even this is 
of some service. But it is of little avail, compared with some- 
thing which would at the same time interest and excite the 
mind. The pupil should bury, as it were, all his usual employ- 
ments, in order to get the full benefit of the exercise." 15 

Demand for School Exercise 

By the middle of the century there came a demand for a 
system of exercises suited to schoolroom practice. Superintend- 
ent Bishop of the Boston Schools in 1852 said: "In addition 
to the exercises allowed at the time of recesses each half day, 
all the younger children need provision for some gentle exercise 
as often as once in every half hour, such as rising, walking, 
marching, accompanied with such motions of the arms as would 
tend to give fullness and erection to the chest." 1 * 

In the decade which followed there was a steady rise in the 
curve of interest in School Gymnastics, which was manifested 
in recommendations for the school as in the case cited above. 
Relative to the causes back of this interest, Mr. James C. 
Boykin, a specialist in the United States Bureau of Education, 
said : " There is certainly every reason to believe that the influx 
of intelligent Germans into this country after the political dis- 
turbance in Europe in 1848 had much to do with the general 
interest in physical training that was so plainly apparent in the 
next five or six years." 17 

Dio Lewis as a Leader 
Thus conditions were growing more favorable for the advent 
of a leader who could direct attention to a system of exercise 
which could be carried on in the schoolroom or in the home 
with a minimum amount of apparatus. This leader appeared 
in the form of Diocletian Lewis. Boykin gives the following 
graphic account of his appearance before the American Insti- 
tute of Instruction in i860: " In some way Dr. Lewis attracted 

15 Aleott, W. A., American Institute of Instruction, 1836. 

18 Report of the Boston School Committee, 1852. 

17 Commissioner of Education Report, 1891-1892, I, 514. 



70 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

the attention of the managers of the meeting and was invited 
to appear before it and ' explain and illustrate his new system.' 
He did so and such an impression was made at the end of the 
half hour allotted him, that his time was extended and he occu- 
pied two hours of the time of the meeting. The next morning 
he was accorded two hours more and at noon still another 
hour." 18 

With such an advent into the public mind it is not surprising 
that enthusiasm for his system grew very rapidly, nor that his 
methods were widely adopted. In writing on this popular re- 
ception of Lewis, Thomas Wentworth Higginson said in 1861 : 
" Until lately all our educational plans have assumed man to 
be a merely sedentary being. . . . It is something to have 
got beyond this period where active sports were actually pro- 
hibited. I remember when there was but one boat owned by 
a Cambridge student, and that boat was soon reported to have 
been suppressed by the faculty, on the plea that there was a 
college law against students keeping domestic animals and a boat 
was a domestic animal within the meaning of the statute. . . . 
It would be unpardonable in this connection not to speak a good 
word for the favorite hobby of the day — Dr. Lewis and his 
system of gymnastics. . . . Dr. Winship had done all that 
was needed in apostleship of severe exercises, and there was 
wanting some man with a milder hobby, perfectly safe for a 
lady to drive. The fates provided that man also in Dr. Lewis 
— so hale and hearty, so profoundly confident in the omnipo- 
tence of his methods and the uselessness of all others ; with 
such a ready invention and such an inundation of animal spirits 
that he could flood any company, no matter how starched or list- 
less, with an unbounded appetite for ball games and bean 
games." 19 

It is hard to tell what the outcome of the popular move- 
ment would have been had it not been overshadowed by the 
military exercises in connection with the Civil War. However, 
the agitation was to a limited extent reflected in the schools. 

Within the next two or three years this system was intro- 
duced into a number of school systems of the country, includ- 



Ibid., 516. 
'Circular of Information, U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 5, 1885, 28. 



Physical Education 71 

ing Boston, Cincinnati, and St. Louis. It was impossible to 
keep up interest in this type of exercise amid the strenuous 
times of war. " The force of the movement soon spent itself 
and the schemes for physical training assumed a semi-military 
character." 20 

Decline of Interest 

Within the next few years there seemed to be a steady decline 
in interest in any form of physical education. The following 
account of the decline in Cincinnati is fairly typical: "In 1861 
gymnastics was introduced as a regular exercise under the direc- 
tion of instructors specially employed for that purpose. . . . 
From 1 861 to 1865, there was a standing committee on gym 
nasties, consisting of five members ; in 1865, this number was 
reduced to three; in 1878, the 'committee on gymnastics' wa6 
abolished and instead there was substituted the committee on 
hygiene of five members; in 1881, the committee on hygiene 
disappeared and its place was taken by the ' committee on 
boundaries, statistics and hygiene ' of three members." 21 

Rise of German Influence 

Of the forces which contributed to the renewed interest in 
physical education in the eighties, perhaps the most significant 
was the German influence operating through the North Amer- 
ican Gymnastic Union. 22 

The following quotation from their platform adopted in 1884 
suggests their point of view and their means of attaining this 
end : " It is one of the chief aims of the gymnastic societies, 
and of the Gymnastic Union, to labor for the introduction of 
systematic gymnastic training into the existing schools, since 
such training is indispensable to the thorough education of the 
young. . . . It is furthermore the duty of these societies to 
labor in their own sphere, for the establishment and perfection 
of good German-English schools in which music, singing, draw- 
ing, and gymnastics receive full attention. . . . It is obli- 
gatory upon the societies to provide for the further education of 
their members by arranging for instructive addresses, lectures, 

20 Ibid., 29. Also Barnard's American Journal of Education, vol. IV, 236. 

21 Boykin, Commissioner of Education Report, 1891, vol. I, 527. 

22 Hartwell, Physical Education, vol. V, 8. 



72 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

or discussions, once a month ; and such topics chiefly shall 
be selected for this purpose as relate to the resolutions and prin- 
ciples of the Gymnastic Union." 23 

Results of Activity of Turners 

It is interesting to compare the plans which were here set 
forth with those of the New York Industrial Association, the 
success of which has been noted in an earlier chapter. The 
similarity in the means employed by these two organizations in 
their later development is striking. The steps of organization, 
agitation, free introduction, joint management, followed by com- 
plete introduction, which were noted in the case of manual 
training and domestic science, were typical also in the case of 
the introduction of physical education under the influence of 
the Turners. In St. Louis the demand for this work was sup- 
ported by a petition signed by over fourteen thousand citizens. 24 

Cincinnati as a Type 

The following petition which was submitted to the Board of 
Education of Cincinnati in 1891 outlines the plan pursued : 

Gentlemen : 

The members of the four Turnverein or Gymnasiums of this city 
desirous of having the physical well-being of our youth cared for, as well 
as the intellectual one, wish to impress upon your honorable body the 
necessity of a rational physical training of the pupils of our Common 
Schools. In order to give your honorable body an opportunity to per- 
sonally acquaint yourselves with the various steps taken during a series 
of systematic exercises, with a view of developing the physical faculties 
of the rising generation, our three teachers of gymnastics, Messrs. Eck- 
stein, Knoch, and Speidel, offered to teach gymnastics, without any charge 
whatever for three months, and permission given them to devote at least 
fifteen minutes daily to each class receiving instruction in gymnastics. It 
is hopeful, in case of your acceptance of our offer, that the members of 
your honorable body will witness the exercises as often as possible, and 
we trust that they will readily see the necessity of the harmonious de- 
velopment of body and mind, and vote for a speedy and permanent 
introduction of gymnastics in our Common Schools. 

Respectfully, 

Alfred Herhotz, Secretary. 
Committee for Introduction of Physical Culture into the Common Schools. 25 



23 From Sections 21-23, quoted in Circular of Information, U. S. Bureau 
of Education, No. 5, 2885, 182. 

24 Boykin, Commissioner of Education Report, 1891-1892, I, 525. 
28 Shotwell, Schools of Cincinnati, 286. 



Physical Education 73 

With such appeals backed up by strong organization of influ- 
ential people it is not surprising to find that these requests were 
granted. 

Other Organizations Contributed 

Among the other influences that contributed to the movement 
at this period should be mentioned, the Young Men's Christian 
Association, and the Women's Christian Temperance Union. 
The former association through its gymnasium and training 
schools and enthusiastic leaders, accomplished much in the way 
of stimulation of interest in the general cause of physical edu- 
cation. 26 

The temperance union maintained a department devoted to 
the interests of physical education and contributed not a little 
toward the development of a popular sentiment in favor of 
increased attention toward this phase of education. 27 

Also the American Association for the Advancement of Physi- 
cal Education which was organized in 1885, 28 contributed very 
much to the spread of interest. The plan of having state 
branches of the organization gave it an additional leverage in 
this particular. 

Private Initiative in Boston 

As was noted in the case of the other subjects private gener- 
osity contributed to the introduction of the subject into the 
schools. The individual efforts of Mrs. Augustus Hemenway 
whose activity in connection with the Boston Schools has 
already been mentioned, was very significant in the East and 
really did much toward the spread of the Swedish system of 
gymnastics. In 1888, Mrs. Hemenway provided for a course 
of instruction under Mr. Nils Posse for twenty-five of the 
teachers in the Boston Schools. This proved so satisfactory that 
the following year she broadened the scope of her experiment 
and entered into an agreement with the School Board whereby 
she was to provide instruction for one hundred of the city teach- 
ers without any expense to the city, on condition that these teach- 
ers be allowed the time to present the work in turn in the 
schools. In the year following, the work was made a part of 



""Gulick, Proc. A. A. A. P. E. 1891, 43-47. 

" Proc. N. E. A, 1901, 760-765. 

28 Proc. A. A. A. P. E., 1885, et seq. 



74 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

the regular school curriculum, and a Director of Physical Train- 
ing employed. In the meantime, Mrs. Hemenway had provided 
at her own expense a teacher of this system of gymnastics for 
the Normal School. 29 

Union of Forces Produced Wave of Enthusiasm 
With all these factors at work, the movement by the later 
eighties was situated almost ideally for the generation of a 
great wave of enthusiasm. Not only was there an intellectual 
interest in this subject, supported by a National Organization 
with state branches, but there was generated a widespread emo- 
tional interest through the other organizations. Turning has 
been close to the German heart for generations. When to this 
sentiment was added the actual pleasure that was derived in the 
Turnverein Halls, it is small wonder that they have indeed re- 
mained zealots. 

The Young Men's Christian Association dominated as it has 
been by lofty purpose and the enthusiasm of youth, furnished 
a powerful ally in the emotional awakening. The Women's 
Christian Temperance Union was likewise rich in feeling. 

By the very nature of these organizations they cut crosswise 
through the social structure, uniting for the purpose groups 
of otherwise widely divergent interests and passions. Thus it 
is not surprising to find that physical education was rapidly in- 
troduced into the schools from one end of the country to the 
other. The reports submitted to the United States Commissioner 
of Education indicate that during the interval from 1889 to 1892 
the subject was introduced into over one hundred cities. 30 

Reception within the School 
The question again arises as to the spirit in which this 
pressure was received in the schoolroom. How did the school 
respond to this call for increased attention to the health of the 
child? Although there is no record of hostility toward the 
movement the traditions of the school were operative in direct- 
ing attention to the intellectual side of this form of education. 
This was due not only to the dominant conception of the doc- 
trine of formal discipline itself, and the belief that a few minutes 

39 Commissioner of Education Report, 1891-1892, I, 534. 
30 Ibid., 582-594- 



Physical Education 75 

given over each day to one activity would carry over to remote 
activities, but to the lack of a clear recognition of the relations 
which existed between health and muscular exercise. 

Physical Exercise in the Place of the Recess Period 
In many places physical culture was made to take the place 
of the recess period for the children. Concerning this plan, Miss 
Anna Morris, of Des Moines, Iowa, said before the National 
Education Association : " Believing as we do that outdoor re- 
cesses are productive of more evil than good, from harmful 
associates, violent and irregular exercise, indiscriminate racing 
and shouting, we have given this phase of the work special 
attention and would suggest recess recreation instead of recess 
gymnastics. The windows can be thrown open while the pupils 
engage in full deep breathing and recreative marching; they 
can practice on the horizontal bar suspended in the cloak room 
door, or they can exercise on the vaulting bar. . . . And in 
relaxing exercises — all of which afford cheerful recreation." 31 

Physical Exercise as a Training of the Will 

The Committee of Fifteen of the Department of Superin- 
tendence which reported to that body in 1895 on educational 
values said: 

" Systematic physical training has for its object rather will 
training than recreation, and this must not be forgotten. To 
go from hard lessons to a series of calisthenic exercises is to 
go from one kind of will training to another." 32 

It is to be noted that the idea of recreation had dropped even 
farther from the expressed aim of this work, and that the 
dominant idea was training of the will. A still broader claim 
for the subject as a developer of the faculties is shown in the 
following quotation from a paper read before the National Edu- 
cation Association in 1895 by Miss N. D. Kimberland of Detroit : 
" There are also certain specific benefits traceable to special 
sections and methods of the work. Among these I would place, 
first, alertness, precision, and prompt execution of voluntary 
movements that we obtain through military execution of the 

"Proc. N. E. A., 1892, 371. 
"Ibid., 1895, 314. 



76 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

drills. The exactness and rapidity of this form of movement 
have a special value in developing concentrated attention, which, 
becoming a habit, must prove of use in the parallel development 
of mental life." 33 

These are fairly typical of the tendencies in this connection 
during this period, as judged by the addresses of the teachers. 
The health and pleasure of the individual child becomes in a 
way secondary to the formal training of the faculties, chief of 
which is the will. In 1903 Mr. William O. Krohn of Chicago 
set forth this ideal thus : " There is nothing so important, nothing 
so significant, nothing so vital in the whole scheme of educa- 
tion as the development of the proper self-control, self-direction, 
and co-ordination of muscular activity. Our whole purpose in 
our work is to make the child's organism intelligent in its every 
activity. . . . No matter to what school of physical educa- 
tion we belong, our own common purpose and aim is so to fit, 
so to adjust, so to train the body of the child that it will obey 
every behest of the will. 34 

Dr. Harris early recognized this tendency and in his char- 
acteristic way called attention to it in an address before the 
National Education Association in 1891 : " It seems to me that 
it has been one of the great defects in physical education that 
it has been brought into the schools and made a will training 
so that the child, who has been exhausting his nervous energy 
all the morning at his lessons in school, is then called upon to 
exhaust it even more rapidly in such forms of exercise, instead 
of relaxing as he ought to. The child must stand up, he must 
not lean; he must pay attention and imitate precisely motions 
prescribed. This is a strain on the will power, and calisthenics 
as practiced in many cases exhausts nervous energy faster than 
a class exercise in Latin or Greek. . . ." 35 

Refraction of Demand within the School 
From this survey we are led to the conclusion that, as in the 
case of the other subjects under discussion, physical education 
came into the schools as a result of outside agitation and or- 
ganization. This outside demand, which was for a proper recog- 

33 Ibid., 1895, 947- 

34 Ibid., 1903, 882. 
"Ibid., 1891,357. 



Physical Education 77 

nition of the physical needs of the child for the sake of health, 
was refracted by the school, so that the training of the will 
came to receive the chief emphasis in the minds of many of 
the leaders. It is interesting to note in this connection the 
present agitation for school hygiene and free play. 

Administration 

As in the case of the other subjects the responsibility for 
this work for the most part was placed in the hands of special- 
ists, though the regular teachers have borne a larger share in 
this than in the case of some of the other subjects, as manual 
training and domestic science. 36 

Summary 

The early interest in physical exercise centered around work. 
This was followed by interest in military drill as a means of 
providing the proper exercise while at the same time furnishing 
a form of training valuable for purposes of defense. 

Interest in the German system of pure gymnastics which 
arose about 1825, was soon transferred to the Fellenberg move- 
ment. The manual labor feature of this movement struck a 
popular chord as a " practical " kind of exercise for a student. 

The failure of this as a means of providing suitable exercise, 
and the growing knowledge of the human body through the 
study of physiology, led to a demand for a form of exercise 
suited to the schoolroom. The system of Diocletian Lewis which 
claimed this advantage was rather widely adopted in the early 
sixties. 

This was diverted by the influence of the War which again 
directed attention to the military drill. With the close of the 
War interest declined until the early eighties, when through the 
organized efforts of the German Turners, assisted by certain 
others, powerful pressure was brought to bear on the schools 
which resulted in the widespread recognition of the subject in 
the early nineties. 

Within the schoolroom this demand was so interpreted that 
special attention was directed to formal gymnastics as a means 
of strengthening the will. 

54 See Chapter XI. 



CHAPTER VII 
PENMANSHIP 

Early Religious Sanction for Reading and Writing Schools 

The student of educational history in this country is aware 
of the close connection between the lower schools and the 
church. Indeed the law of Massachusetts which made provision 
for these schools, plainly sets forth the religious sanction in 
the following terms : "It being one chief project of the old 
deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scrip- 
tures, as in former times by keeping them in an unknown tongue, 
so in these latter times by persuading from the use of tongues, 
that so at least the true sense and meaning of the original 
might be clouded by false glosses of saint seeming deceivers; 
that learning may not be buried in the grave of our fathers in 
the church and Commonwealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors. 
It is therefore ordered that every township in this jurisdiction, 
after the Lord hath increased them to the number of fifty house- 
holders, shall then forthwith appoint one within their town to 
teach all such children as resort to him, to write and to read." 1 

This was copied in its entirety in the Connecticut Code of 
1650, 2 and represents the typical point of view concerning ele- 
mentary instruction during the early period. 

Writing Less Important than Reading 

However, it seems apparent that of these two subjects in the 
curriculum reading was considered the more important. This 
is not surprising in view of the larger importance of reading 
in connection with the interpretation of the Scriptures. In sup- 
port of this assumption the following extract from the Con- 
necticut Code of 1650 is submitted: "It is therefore ordered 

1 Order of General Court, 1647, quoted in Barnard's American Journal 
of Education, II, 327. 

2 Barnard's American Journal of Education, IV, 661. 

78 



Penmanship 7 9 

by the court and the authority thereof, that the selectmen of 
every town in the several precincts and quarters where they 
dwell, shall have a vigilant eye over their brethren and neigh- 
bors, to see, first, that none of them shall suffer such barbarism 
in any of their families, as not to endeavor to teach by them- 
selves or others their children and apprentices so much learning 
as may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue. . . . 
Also, that all masters of families, do, once a week, at least, 
catechise their children and servants, . . . and further that 
all parents and masters do breed and bring up their children 
and apprentices in some honest and lawful calling, labor or 
employment." 3 

This was practically unchanged for one hundred and fifty 
years. 4 

It is significant that in this order no mention is made of 
instruction in writing. The full text is very explicit in stipu- 
lations relative to instruction in reading in the catechism and 
the selection of an honest trade or calling. It does not seem 
reasonable to suppose that the reference to writing was omitted 
by accident. It is more reasonable to conclude that writing as 
such was not considered of importance in this connection. An- 
other indication of this is found in the testimony of Wm. B. 
Fowle, who in writing of his own school days in Boston during 
the latter part of the eighteenth century, said, "As no provision 
was made in the reading school for any exercise in writing, 
no such exercise was required there; and the immense advan- 
tage from having the teacher able to give instruction in pen- 
manship as well as in orthography and composition was wholly 
lost. The writer passed through an entire course in the Boston 
schools, and was never required to write a sentence or word of 
English." 5 

Traditional Means of Instruction in Writing 

The colonists had the sanction of tradition for depending 
upon the writing master for instruction in this subject. In 
England the writing school was quite common during the seven- 

8 Connecticut Code of 1650, quoted in Barnard's American Journal of 
Education, XXVIII, 171. 
* Ibid., 170. 
5 Ibid., V, 329. 



80 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

teenth century. Concerning the reason for this isolation, Brown 
says : " The various styles of penmanship then in vogue called 
for some considerable training and attainment of a technical 
sort on the part of the teacher." 6 

The fact that the appliances used in writing were not always 
to be found in the regular schoolroom no doubt contributed much 
to the continual separation of these phases of instruction. By 
the middle of the seventeenth century the practice suggested in 
the following quotation was quite common in the English gram- 
mar schools. "Though the teaching of children to write a fair 
hand doth properly belong to writing masters, as professors of 
that art, yet the care of seeing that all they write in paper books 
and loose papers by way of exercise be neatly done, doth per- 
tain to every schoolmaster. . . . The usual way of scholars 
learning to write at the county grammar schools, is to entertain 
an honest and skillful penman that he may constantly come and 
continue with about a month or six weeks together every year, 
in which time commonly everyone may learn to write legibly." 7 

Commercial Sanction 

This practice developed ultimately into the plan of having a 
regular and continuous instruction in writing in connection with 
the other schooling. This did not come about however until 
there was a pressure demanding it, which was strong enough 
to break down the barriers of tradition. This pressure came 
as a result of the increased interest in commercial activity. In 
regard to this change Brown says : " The eighteenth century 
gave more and more countenance to this innovation partly 
because of the growing influence of the commercial class and 
partly we may believe because of some increase of hospitality 
toward studies not distinguished by tradition. The new studies 
(writing and arithmetic) represented the intrusion of a different 
view of the function of the school; they smacked of trade. 
. . . It was not for the perfecting of human character but 
the training up of men to some sort of efficiency and public 
usefulness. . . . The enlargement of commercial operations, 
the growth of American shipping, particularly that engaged in 

6 Making of Our Middle Schools, 19. 

T Hoole, Scholastic Discipline, 1659, quoted in Barnard's American Jour- 
nal of Education, I, 315. 



Penmanship 81 

the whaling industry, and the rapid extension of the zone of 
regular settlements had much to do with the demand for such 
studies as these." 8 

This sanction was present in the recommendation of Franklin. 
Washington also gave expression to this in his recommendations 
of a course of instruction for the orphan and poor children in 
the Alexandria Academy. In his proposal for endowing this 
school which was submitted in 1785, he said: "It was my in- 
tention to apply the latter (the interest on the principal sum) 
to the sole purpose of education, and of that sort of education 
as would be most extensively useful to people of the lower class 
of citizens, viz., reading, writing and arithmetic, so as to fit them 
for mechanical purposes." 9 

Double-Headed System of Instruction 
With the increased attention to the practical value of writing 
came more definite provision for instruction in this subject. The 
public assumed a larger share of the responsibility in this work. 
In the reorganization of the Boston schools in 1789, at which 
time the " double-headed system was established," 10 provision 
was made for equal emphasis on reading and writing, " so that 
the same pupils attended a writing school in one building half 
the day and a reading school in a different building, at a con- 
siderable distance, and under a different and independent teacher, 
the other half. Each reading school had its corresponding writ- 
ing school. . . . Even when the town built new school 
houses the upper room was devoted to the reading school and 
the lower to the writing, the boys and girls alternating as 
before." 11 

With this reorganization the regular writing teachers were 
denied the privilege of maintaining private writing schools on 
the side. Although this did not prove to be a permanent pro- 
hibition it indicated the tenor of the public mind on the subject. 12 
The division of responsibility in this double-headed system 
was productive of much waste as was indicated in the foregoing 



8 Making of Our Middle Schools, 134-135- 

9 Quoted in Barnard's American Journal of Education, XXVIII, 313. 

10 Dexter, History of Education in United States, 437. 

11 Fowle, quoted in Barnard's American Journal of Education, V, 328. 
ia Ibid., V, 330. 



82 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

quotations from Fowle. The teachers looked after their own 
subject only and after a little were selected on the basis of the 
narrowest range of ability. Concerning this narrow range of 
qualification for teachers in Boston, Fowle said : " The first 
three reading masters were good penmen, . . . but this was 
not afterwards considered an essential qualification of the read- 
ing master, and when forty years afterward a change was pro- 
posed in the schools, by which the " double-headed " system was 
to be reduced to a single head, the reading masters were found 
as incompetent to teach penmanship as the writing masters had 
always been to teach anything else." 13 

It is of interest to compare this situation with the present 
one in regard to the relative inability of the regular teacher to 
teach the subjects which have been recently introduced into one 
curriculum, such as music, drawing, and manual training. The 
question arises as to whether or not the time will come when 
the regular teacher will be expected to bear the responsibility 
of instruction in these subjects. 

Pressure Brought to Bear on Regular Teachers 

With the new emphasis which was placed on the common 
schools under the Horace Mann regime an increased demand 
was placed upon the regular teacher to assume the responsibility 
for instruction in writing as well as in other subjects. The 
school reports of this period are full of reference to the subject. 
Apparently no opportunity was neglected to give criticism for 
poor work or credit for good work in this subject. The fol- 
lowing are typical quotations : 

" The committee have noticed with much regret that the prac- 
tice of writing has become quite uncommon undoubtedly on 
account of the impression with many teachers that it is a branch 
that can be taught with but little success. . . . That writing 
is a branch of education unlike most others introduced into our 
schools, requiring great care and attention in its prosecution to 
insure success, your committee will not deny, but that it may 
be taught with a good degree of success in our district school, 
has in one instance been fully proved to your committee the 
past season." 14 



13 Ibid., V, 329- 

14 Report of Peru, Massachusetts, 7th Annual Report of Horace Mann, 
195- 



Penmanship 83 

" With respect to writing, which in some of the largest schools 
has not been on an equality of attainment with the others, the 
committee suggests the propriety of establishing a requisition 
that a specific time each day be appropriated to this important 
acquirement. The fear is now entertained that it is now more 
generally neglected than any of the branches required to be 
taught in the Public Schools. While other branches now as 
necessary have received the attention which ought to have been 
applied here." 15 

Again : 

"A number of the winter schools have exhibited fine specimens 
of writing. The committee believe that a due attention to this 
part of education in Public Schools without materially inter- 
fering with other studies may supercede the necessity of these 
common and expensive schools which are devoted exclusively to 
writing."™ 

" It is a well known fact that many people have acquired their 
fortune by the use of the pen, even when their literary attain- 
ments were decidedly below mediocrity. This is sufficient reason 
why the art should be taught indisputably." 17 

In the last statements the economic appeal is set forth very 
clearly. 

Decline of the Writing Schools 

These quotations suggest the means used in placing the burden 
of writing instruction on the shoulders of the regular teacher. 

Meanwhile the simplification and standardization of letter 
forms and the improved systems of copy books contributed 
much. Text-book publishers were quick to respond to the situa- 
tion and vied with each other in producing elaborate guides to 
the teacher in the form of manuals of instruction. With this 
came the gradual disappearance of the writing school as an 
adjunct of the public schools. Relative to this change, Ellsworth, 
a famous penmanship teacher of the third quarter of the last 
century said, in 1878: "At this day the ancient race of writing 
masters is almost extinct, having retreated to the back woods 
so far that civilization is left to perpetuate the 'Art of Arts ' 
by means more scientific. The schools of the land have absorbed 

16 Report of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, 3d Annual Report of Horace 
Mann, 318. 

16 Report of Rochester, Massachusetts, 4th Annual Report of Horace 
Mann, 435. 

17 Report of Luxenburg, Massachusetts, 6th Annual Report of Horace 
Mann, 87. 



84 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

the subject and the ' poor overworked teacher ' is looked to to 
impart the dexterity in the use of the pen and dispense the 
philosophy of an experience perhaps not yet her own." 18 

Attitude of School 

Thus it is seen that penmanship coming into the curriculum 
as it did much earlier than the other subjects under discussion 
has had a much larger time in which to become fused with the 
fundamentals of the course of study. With the pressure created 
by changed economic and social conditions, the teacher was 
forced to take specific account of the writing of the children 
and ultimately to assume the instruction in this subject as one 
of the primal duties for which the school was maintained. A 
moment's consideration of the comparative effect of the inability 
on the part of a teacher to pass an examination in writing 
with inability to pass an examination in music or drawing will 
give an additional measure of the degree of fusion which has 
taken place in respect to this subject. 

The implications have been so clear in regard to the end to 
be attained, and the means of checking up so numerous that 
the popular will in the matter has not been deflected as in the 
case of some of the other subjects. 

The fact that the teacher had to read the writing of the child 
in the course of instruction no doubt has also contributed much 
to the clear cut emphasis on the practical side of penmanship. 
At any rate educators have not attempted to interpret instruc- 
tion in writing on the basis of its intellectual discipline, but they 
have seriously directed their efforts toward a rational interpre- 
tation of the demands of society in this particular. 

Administration 

Since the early organization of city systems of schools, writing 
has frequently been placed in charge of a special supervisor. 
The schools of Cincinnati employed a specialist for penmanship 
as early as 1841. 19 However, the number of these specialists 
has always been small compared with the number of specialists 
in music, drawing and the like, 20 and their methods have been 

u Essentials of Penmanship, 1878, 2. 

19 Shotwell, Schools of Cincinnati, 171. 

20 See tables in a later section, Chapter VIII. 



Penmanship 85 

such that the teacher has been forced to carry a large share 
of the responsibility in this connection. 

Summary 

The early reading and writing schools were established in 
this country with a religious sanction. With this emphasis writ- 
ing received less attention than was given to reading and was 
taught for the most part in private venture writing schools in 
charge of " writing masters." 

With the growth in commercial activity in the latter part of 
the eighteenth century increased attention was given to penman- 
ship and with this practical commercial sanction came a demand 
for better public provision for instruction in this subject. 

Although there was a response to this demand the instruc- 
tion was still kept separate in the form of reading schools and 
writing schools. 

The recognition of the waste in this extreme specialization 
coupled with the continued demand for penmanship instruction, 
brought such a pressure that the division of labor was broken 
down and the subject became fused with the other fundamental 
subjects of the common school curriculum, the burden of in- 
struction falling upon the regular teacher. 

Owing to the clear implication involved, the will of the people 
was not refracted in the schoolroom as was found to be the 
case in the other subjects. 



CHAPTER VIII 
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIALISTS 

The Spread of the Practice of Employing Supervisors 

In tracing the introduction of special subjects into the public 
school system, it has been apparent that in practically every 
case this has been accompanied by an addition to the teaching 
force in the form of a special teacher or special supervisor. 

At the time of the first experimentation this was a practical 
necessity, on account of the fact that the regular teachers, except 
in isolated cases, had neither the time, technical skill, nor dis- 
position to undertake the new subjects. In the earlier chapters 
repeated examples have been given of the neglect of these sub- 
jects by the regular teacher when additions were made to the 
course of study without a corresponding provision for instruc- 
tion. Hence the employment at public expense of special teach- 
ers or supervisors has quite uniformly followed the introduction 
of these subjects. Moreover this has been in complete accord 
with the tendency of the time toward the further division of 
labor in all lines of human activity. 

Method of Distribution 

It is proposed in this chapter to trace in some detail the 
spread of the practice of employing specialists in this con- 
nection in cities of eight thousand inhabitants and over. In 
the organization of this material all cities reporting the employ- 
ment of specialists were tabulated in accordance with their loca- 
tion, the classification of the United States Bureau of Education 
being used. These cities were again classified according to size, 
the grouping adopted by the Committee; on Salaries which re- 
ported to the National Council of Education in 1905, being 
used. 1 These groups are: Class I, cities of a population of 
1,000,000 or over; Class II, 200,000 to 1,000,000; Class III, 100,- 

1 Report of Committee on Salary, Tenure and Pensions of Teachers. 
86 



Distribution of Specialists 87 

000 to 200,000; Class IV, 50,000 to 100,000; Class V, 30,000 
to 50,000; Class VI, 20,000 to 30,000; Class VII, 15,000 to 
20,000; Class VIII, 10,000 to 15,000; Class IX, 8,000 to 10,000. 
In doing this it was necessary not only to classify cities with 
special teaching and supervision, but it was also necessary to 
so arrange all the cities of the United States for each period 
studied, in order to gain a relative idea of the prevalence of the 
practice. In all these classifications the estimated census figures 
used in the reports of the Commissioner of Education were 
followed. 

Sources of Information 

The early reports of the Commissioner of Education show no 
separate column for specialists ; however, they were indicated by 
footnotes in the lists of regular teachers. The first separate 
classification for teachers of music, drawing and penmanship 
was made in 1874-75. This material serves as the basis of this 
comparative treatment, which is followed by the data for 1884-85 
and of 1908. In the recent reports of the Commissioner of 
Education this material is grouped under general headings, 
which do not admit the detailed treatment necessary in this study. 
Consequently a new source of information was essential for 
the year 1908. This data has been gathered from (1) the 
Vaile School Directories for 1908, an annual trade list of the 
school officials of the United States ; (2) personal inquiry by 
means of a return postal card, which supplemented the infor- 
mation found in the Vaile Directory. Inasmuch as many city 
reports distinguished domestic science and sewing it has seemed 
wise to treat them separately ; hence the following tables include 
the distribution of specialists in music, drawing, penmanship, 
manual training, domestic science, sewing, and physical edu- 
cation. 

There are certain sources of error in every study of this 
nature, due to inaccuracies in original reports and to clerical 
errors in tabulation. However, it is believed that in the case 
of this investigation these are almost negligible. The data col- 
lected by the government are certainly fairly reliable. Although 
the Vaile Directories are not absolutely accurate, the data were 
sufficiently reliable to command a ready sale at a stiff figure for 
commercial purposes. The supplementary questionaire called 



88 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

for facts, not opinion or guess work, as can be seen by reference 
to the copy in the appendix. Definite answers were received 
from 63 per cent of the one hundred and ninety inquiries which 
were sent out. On the whole it seems safe to say that the 
following tables represent a reliable statement of the situation 
for all practical purposes in regard to the points in question. 



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O 


t*3 -t 


Ifl O 


w> 


~ 


to 


*^ 


r- 


O 


r- T 










■^f fO V100 rO Cs t^oO 



•-O00000M<OO<^a' 

o 



t^ Ov « •**■ r^ m < 



i/jaio foo 't « « 






. ■ r*> (s vi «-> ro < 



j f) -to ntn n 



C 

Pn 
ij oo^O't'J-vifoO'O" 



•3 moo GOMCtOO 
."£ .t r~ N *-tf ro N m 
O 



cj O>00 r~>0 tri -t m < 
O 



& .2 



•° Z 






5 mo vO 

S «■> ■ _• ■ 



m .2 ? I 

o SQcu 



00 N0OO0 



8S-s'*9 



oSQft, 



1- c w 

O £ 
P-Q. 






""to *J rt n 
■Sga "rtJJ^ 
o o & k.- ca a 









£*: p 

rt g.g 

"o 

— a. 

£•* *■" 
.3.9 

.a w ^ 

tj «•- 

&— . 

X > 
_ u 



3 u ai 



^« Si 
.1 -■- 

<« c.y 
-tt! 

.S 2 E 

■D 0. 

c . 

fl-W 43 

rt C g 

. ^ « ° > 

V. S 0) <U - <J - 

^■" ^ ^i o w 

c 2 „- c« « t; 2 
««1« ™ *; u 25 

R'o x c Vm 
C "2-" if .'^ 

O-SajC.y ft 
•43 g^: ^-o .0 
« c *-■«.£ ^ v 

.12 b o & c 2 l3 . 

■S s a « g- 5 B"fi 

C* J „00(tC'S 

m r, C u rt-O 

cu «J^3 p c tU"i C 



' <u ft • 



^ "Z 



■U !J t3 •- > <U M 

, d c C i>*i %x. a» 



W _ 



-T3-Sr? 60 



* a ^ toC o • o 

tC to >"2 . 
uv^ .-. S3 3 

00 ? oj "U aJTS 



9 2 



Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 



X 


z 


o 




&H 





>H 


& 


C* 


B 


< 


03 


V, 


d 


s 


g 


E3 


s 



H 2 



'Is 



o" 


r*)toM (Of) w l^ v I n 


£ 


lO^O ^"WOO M-O D 


01 
03 




H 


t^tMl lo « 1^00 "5 


§' 






M m \0 »O00 00 *<t lo to 
O to^O VO lo to H w 






O « 






03 M ^ 



ro 0> ^O'O 00 OM 



O r^-^O 0> N00 V>*0 C* 















ScmS 














COC« 














.a °3 & 














O u> O u 


j*. 10 O* 




o >o >o 








<r>v o u 


n 10 o 




O VO "O 








2* "U 


f~00 NO 




vO ^o 








tn —03 






o *o *o 








and dome 
Out of 492 
39 per cent 
th Central 






















M 


UlltJN 






to o to 




«a 


M N to 


or • 3 






to o to 








c* ^ O 












VO M ■* 






to o to 






io to to 








lO "t to 




to 




(3 ° 

8) 4) O/S 
_ >, to-M 


00 ■* ■* 

vO to tO 












0C4j • --rj 

gt«»s 


r~ O O 
























trai: 
of t 

. sew 
ntic 






000 f- 
O N >0 










to 


O ^00 


a 






«0 u 




a 
o 




3 
o 

u 

u 






in manu 
Educati 
per cent 

South A 




JO 




V 
U 




















r^-oo r~ 


"o 

1 * 

o 


IO IT) IO 

lo O i-< 









lists 

IT Of 

8.55 
the 


ooo « 


M M fO 
to N 1-1 


c 
■a 






•2 c a 
°-~ 




p. 










9-2 *£ 
tfl — f- 








2 

o 




Tt lO tO 

00 >ooo 


ent of 
i Comm 
raining ; 
penma 






•o o> to 


o 










0000 M 






to>o 














loym 

f the 

ual t 

and 




'S 
u 


m^o >o 


^5 


c 






a 




'o 






0,0 e o? 


vO O 
r~ O 


s 

Pi 

O 




bo 






the em 
report 
; in ma: 
drawin 


■<*■ O 




»o o> « 


>. 






52 to 




"ft 


00 >o vo 


o 


















+J T C'^.^ 




Tf «- •* 


"p, 

e 






oj^.2 s 




g 








-&S 86 




■rt 










^e^t- 



P, CvCO 



o$j o 0<3 



p.S"S 









^ C o'^ 



in 1 
are t 
loymt 
that 

uite 
pecia' 


(L) 

B 

J3 


C rt a cr to 





"iito n bo 


> 


■tf T3 OJ ra (DC 




03 .. t*-i +J.R 




the situ 
es. The 
orted the 
out the 
ce. 

as indica 
nd draw 


4 


•0 

a 

to 


w-r" n. _. J^-S TO 


0. 


ent 
tab 

re; 
ngs 
raci 

cit 
sic 


00 

1-f 


epres 
oing 
cent 
n bri 
he p 
;e of 
mu: 


O 

a 


1- 00 1-. o-^.s a 


0) 




1* 


.«<« t^. o_e 




TABLE 4, wh 
esponds to the 
red, 85 or 17.2 
ribution for lo 
so quick to ad 
Distribution fi 
omparison wit: 


OJ 

a 



1 

S 


* 


£ <U W+J ° 





Distribution of Specialists 



93 






hfl WO O 



u 
en 


r-» -^ O *n *t »n00 r» 

P1M - - M 











« 






ro t^ «^ O r~ ^t CI « 

11 M M 


oi 


T 


co 


^t^MM^f-M^W 


- 


JJ 


p 










MM M M M 




in 








fcH 


>o «- « m n t •-• 


M 


f. 


M 












.*J MM -* 

o 

Q 

<L> 

CO 

£-H N tO O00O0 t*» *f 



M ^j poOO »o J> ^ 



U lO fO -^ 



r* Tf* vn -f* 



rO Ci m « m 



° 2 E 






•rroooooo'-'poo^o* 



•^1 ° 



~ ~i >t f n O >0 



M « W O >« 



a o 



o o o c 






c3 


yf ^ ^"O O ^ W CI 


la 

B 

o 


9 


S 


"8 








U 




<u 


'o 


oo n 


CO 


««*•!*»"« 





M 00 00 o 


cu 
ho 


con 
t^ . . • 


Q 








£ 2.^?°° 





t/1 


>' 


M M W « 


H 




M 






.0 

^5 


2 


rO « io « *t **) 


CI 



£<*' 



M ©> t^. C> lO Tf M 



*0 O r*> o> **» O <^« m 



£ » 



0> t^oo r* o i 



H 


CO W t^ Vi IO00 t^ Tf « 


CO 








o 




S 






M 8 

c c 


CJ 






a .s 




O00 00 m o ■* CO « 




'2 <-> 




r»- r» N Tf to « w 


>o 


2 CO 

h .2 


U 




w 
















ca 5P en 








aC« 





^00 r-'O "O^flflM 




StflQ 



0S& 



) ^.P r* 

)SmO 






&*. 

gut 

•-UP 
„U01 

■♦-» ^, ^ 
"* 1) c 

c at 



»— i " 
05 h at 

^sl 

O mj3 

§•1=2 

in oS u 

CJ CJ 4) 

■o a o 

ctj c 00 
oo C .S 

M o 



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ft 

CD 

•a G 



^S HE 



Sxi 



+> w 



CU^ 

il 



■S cu 




60 -s 






O cd 


C'o ° 




«) -irJP 


u oj u 




V) tx w 


'3 ft D 




cu p 


w W J3 
CJ>»-i ** 




•C 2 


V <->-r" 




JP CO 


g C ^ 




O O'^ 


_ >>i* 




m e S r; 


"Oop 




C-2 OO 




o«~ ^-^ 




c c », ° 

a>"P 'w 
01 •*> P 






4-» ^.S3 to 


-'d'o 




*> S *j ^ 

Egc5 
C a; 


etc 




•P O O 




•OhEfi 


• P ft.i2 




O -w O 


Cj O h 




fl^in-2 


1-. 1- aj 

""«? 

-.eg 
2 cu 5 

P O Jj 




S-^-2.3 




a ct)T3j2 
°»5 rt £ 




c 


'S42 o-- 

D u c 

cj C 


■ 


- 


JP X O ^, 


> .li 

"13 t-.'o 


> 
c 
1 


S CO <u°° 


43 ° " 


■"■S'** J" 






" pjp O 


1- a\s 


2 


c"« 





"3 4) CO CO 

• SS v> D ca 
o^S as (-, 


•StjS 


X) 









ft<-" O CJ 



o L w . Ho •" 
Cd P -. 'jp ^ 3 S ° 



94 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 



TABLE 6. SUMMARY FOR 1892 
Distribution of Specialists in Physical Education 





North 

Atlantic 

States 


South 

Atlantic 

States 


South 
Central 
States 


North 
Central 
States 


Western 
States 


United 

States 

as a whole 


Class 


Cities 


Ph. 
Ed. 


Ph. 
Cities Ed. 


Ph. 
Cities Ed. 


Cities 


Ph. 
Ed. 


Cities 


Ph. 
Ed. 


Ph. 

Cities Ed. 


9 


40 


1 


2 1 


8 


46 


6 


6 


2 


102 10 


8 

7 
6 

5 
4 
3 

2 


57 
26 
29 
22 
18 

5 
6 


3 
4 
2 
6 

4 

1 
2 


9 * 

5 J 

4 

2 

4 
I 

2 I 


1 1 

4 1 
5 
10 

3 

1 


49 
26 

25 

20 

8 

6 

6 


5 
2 
2 
7 
3 
4 
4 


5 
5 
2 

4 
5 
1 
1 


2 

1 

2 

4 

1 
1 


131 11 
66 8 
65 5 

58 is 

38 11 

14 6 

15 8 


I 


2 








1 


1 






3 1 








Combining irrespective 


of size of cities 








205 


2 3 


29 4 


42 1 


187 


34 


29 


x 3 


49 2 75 



Percentage of cities employing specialists irrespective of size 
Ph. Ed. 11. 21 13.77 2 -38 18.18 44.82 15.24 

Percentage of cities employing specialists irrespective of location 
Class: 987654321 

Ph. Ed. 9.80 8.34 12.12 7.69 25.85 28.94 42.85 53.33 33.33 

Percentage of cities employing specialists combined in three groups 
Classes: 9, 8 & 7 6, 5 & 4 3,2&i 

Ph. Ed. 9.69 19-25 46.87 

TABLE 6 represents the situation in 1892 relative to the employment 
of specialists of physical education and corresponds to the tables for 
the other subjects. The data is taken from the report of the Commis- 
sioner of Education of that year.* Out of 492 cities considered, 75 or 
15.24 per cent reported the employment of a specialist in physical edu- 
cation. Attention is directed to the fact that this practice was followed 
in a larger percentage of cities in the Western and North Central States 
than in the South or East. Distribution for size of cities indicates that 
a higher percentage of cities with a population of 100,000 or over em- 
ployed specialists in physical education than did the smaller cities. 

♦Commissioner Report, 1891-92, I, 582-89. 



Distribution of Specialists 



95 



TABLE 7. SUMMARY FOR 1908 
Distribution of Specialists in Physical Education 



North South 

Atlantic Atlantic 

States States 



South 


North 




United 


Central 


Central 


Western 


States 


States 


States 


States 


as a whole 



Class 



Ph. 



Ph. 



Ph. 



Ph. 



Ph. 



Ph. 



Cities Ed. Cities Ed. Cities Ed. Cities Ed. Cities Ed. Cities Ed. 



9 


43 


4 


1 1 




14 




48 


9 


16 


2 


132 


iS 


8 


7S 


9 


9 




17 


1 


53 


6 


1 1 


2 


173 


18 


7 


28 


3 


10 


2 


4 




28 


2 


5 


2 


75 


9 


6 


4i 


IS 


9 




6 




4i 


9 


3 




100 


24 


5 


30 


5 


5 




10 


2 


2 3 


6 


5 


2 


73 


J 5 


4 


24 


9 


4 


2 


4 




10 


7 


2 


2 


44 


20 


3 


10 


5 


2 


1 


2 


1 


7 


4 


4 


2 


25 


T 3 


2 


6 


3 


2 


2 


2 


1 


9 


7 


1 


1 


20 


14 



262 



Combining irrespective of size of cities 
54 52 7 59 5 22 5 5 1 47 



13 6 45 1 3° 



Percentage of cities employing specialists irrespective of size 
Ph, Ed. 20.61 13.26 8.47 22.66 27.65 20.15 

Percentage of cities employing specialists irrespective of location 
Class: 987654321 

Ph. Ed. 11.36 10.40 12.00 24.00 20.54 45.45 52.00 70.00 66.66 

Percentage of cities employing specialists combined in three groups 
Classes: 9, 8 & 7 6, 5 & 4 3,2&i 

Ph. Ed. 11.05 27.18 60.41 

TABLE 7 represents the situation in 1908 relative to the employment 
of specialists in physical education and corresponds to TABLE 6, in 
implication. Out of 645 cities, 130 or 20.15 per cent reported the em- 
ployment of specialists in physical education. These figures compared 
with the corresponding ones in TABLE 6, indicate that the growth of 
the practice within the intervening period of sixteen years has been 
relatively small. Distribution for location indicates less variation in 
the different sections of the country than existed in 1892. Distribution 
for size of cities indicates that the practice is still for the most part 
confined to the large cities. 



96 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

Summary 

TABLE 8. COMBINED SUMMARY— 1908 
Percentage of Cities Reporting the Employment of Specialists 

Music 85 .42 

Drawing 75 .81 

Penmanship 21 .39 

Manual Training 43-4° 

Sewing 18.60 

Domestic Science 30 .07 

Physical Education 20.15 

In recent years there has been a striking increase in the num- 
ber of cities employing specialists. This has been especially 
true of music, drawing and manual training. Distribution for 
the location of the cities brings out the fact that the early devel- 
opment of the practice of employing specialists has been largely 
confined to the states of the North Atlantic and the North Cen- 
tral divisions. Distribution for size of cities indicates that the 
practice has for the most part started in the larger cities, 
extending to the smaller cities later. 



CHAPTER IX 
SALARIES 

The information in regard to the salaries paid to the specialists 
throughout the country has been secured from two sources: (i) 
The Vaile School Directories for 1908 j 1 (2) personal inquiry 
by means of a return postal, which supplemented the informa- 
tion found in the directory. - 

From these two sources definite information was secured 
relative to the salaries paid in 1908 to specialists in music in 
492 cities ; drawing in 420 cities ; penmanship in 1 19 cities ; 
manual training in 263 cities ; sewing in 67 cities ; domestic 
science in 171 cities; and physical education in 115 cities. 

The response to the publishers of the directory and to the 
personal inquiry which supplemented this was direct from the 
offices of the school superintendents throughout the country. 
Consequently it seems reasonable to suppose that the informa- 
tion is reliable. 

Method of Tabulation 

The salaries for each subject were distributed as to location 
for each sex, the classification of the United States Bureau of 
Education being used. For purposes of tabulation and com- 
parison the salaries were arranged so as to show a difference 
in $50 units only. For example, salaries of $720, $725, $730, 
$740 were grouped together under the single head : " salary 
of $700 to $749." 

Provision is made in these tables for a regular scale of 
salaries ranging from $100 to $2,500 per annum. Salaries 
outside of these limits are indicated by the footnotes. For 
purposes of comparison the median has been chosen as the 



1 An Annual Trade List of School Officials, 1908, A. S. Barnes & Co., 
N. Y. 
* See Appendix I for Specimen Card. 

97 



98 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

safest single statement of salary. It has seemed advisable to 
print the whole distribution tables rather than to omit these 
and submit a more elaborate statement of statistical interpre- 
tation. 



Salaries 



99 



TABLE 9. SALARIES FOR MUSIC SPECIALISTS 





Men 






Wo 


MEN 








Annual 
Salary 


11 
2-8 

r 


ll 


"0 

K S 

r 


"0 

c 


K 


"5 


H 

I?" 


10 


"3 
■a s 


2 

I 5 




"a 


Men 

and 

Women 

Total 


$100-149 
















I 






1 


1 


159-199 




























200 


1 










1 


1 










1 


2 


250 




























300 














2 










2 


2 


3 So 


1 










T 


2 










2 


3 


400 


2 










2 


1 






1 




2 


4 


450 


2 






I 




3 


4 




I 


3 


I 


10 


13 


500 


3 






I 




4 


15 




3 


7 




25 


29 


5 SO 


1 






I 




2 


4 




2 


10 




17 


19 


600 


3 






4 


I 


8 


14 




1 


11 




31 


39 


650 








4 




4 


II 




4 


17 


I 


35 


39 


700 


6 






1 




7 


8 




I 


19 


2 


31 


38 


7SO 


4 






3 




7 


13 






10 


I 


24 


3 1 


800 


7 




I 


7 


2 


17 


12 




5 


7 


2 


27 


44 


850 


2 


I 




1 




4 


4 






7 


I 


12 


16 


900 


8 




1 


8 


I 


18 


6 






13 


2 


22 


40 


050 


2 




I 


2 


I 


6 


1 




1 


4 


I 


7 


13 


1 ,000 


14 




2 


8 




24 


5 






9 


3 


18 


42 


1,050 


2 










2 






1 




2 


3 


5 


1 ,100 


2 




1 


1 




4 


2 






1 


2 


5 


9 


1. 150 


1 






1 




2 


2 










2 


4 


1 , 200 


6 


1 




3 


I 


I I 


4 


2 


2 


5 


3 


16 


27 


1.250 


3 










3 














3 


1,300 


5 






1 













2 


2 


4 


10 


i,3SO 


1 








I 


2 


I 












3 


1 ,400 


IS 


1 




2 




9 






1 




1 




11 


1,450 




















1 






1 


1,500 


s 




I 


1 




7 




1 




2 


2 




12 


I.5SO 




























1 , 600 


2 


1 




1 




4 




1 










5 


1,650 




















1 






1 


1 ,700 


2 






1 




3 


I 






1 






5 


i,75o 




























1 ,800 


3 






1 




4 










1 




5 


1,850 




























1 ,900 


2 










2 










1 




3 


I.950 




























2 ,000 


3 








I 


4 














4 


2,050 










I 


1 














1 


2 , 100 


I 










1 














1 


2,150 




























2 , 200 




























2,250 




























2,300 




























2.3SO 




























2 ,400-2 ,449 


1 










1 














1 


2,450-2,499 




























*2, 500-2, 549 


1 






2 




3 














3 




M 


edian Salary, $1 


,009., 


57 


A 


r ediai 


* Sale 


iry, $ 


748-3 


8 


Median 
$827.84 



* Three men received salaries of $3,600, $4,000, $4,500. 



IOO 



Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 



TABLE 10. SALARIES FOR DRAWING SPECIALISTS. 1908 





Men 


Women 




Annual 


11 


4. s 


~ s 


S 

■3 s 


.g 




* 8 

■3 s 


■S'S 


S 

■£ s 


"0 


.s 




Men 
and 


Salary 


3 J 


<$!§ 


3& 


? 5 


8 




^!| 


■^ ** 


5.S 
G.£ 


5 ° 


8 




Women 








■*•§ 

on 






73 


fe; 


1? 

5 ■** 
to 




*■§ 

is 


Si 


2 


Total 


$100-149 




























150-199 




























200 














1 










I 


1 


250 




























300 


1 










1 


2 










2 


3 


350 














2 






1 




3 


3 


400 














1 






1 




3 


3 


450 








1 


1 


2 


1 




3 


6 




11 


13 


50c 








1 




1 


9 




2 


7 




20 


21 


55o 








1 




1 


7 




2 


7 




17 


18 


600 














16 




1 


9 


2 


29 


29 


650 














11 




7 


1 1 


1 


30 


30 


700 














20 




3 


13 


2 


39 


39 


75o 


2 










2 


9 




1 


9 




19 


21 


800 


3 






2 




5 


11 




1 


14 


3 


30 


35 


850 












1 


6 






13 


I 


20 


21 


900 


1 










1 


13 




4 


14 


3 


34 


35 


950 




1 








2 


2 




2 


2 


1 


7 


9 


1 ,000 


5 


1 


1 




1 


11 


13 






6 


4 


23 


34 


1,050 


1 










2 


2 






2 


2 


6 


8 


I , IOO 


2 










3 


8 






4 


3 


15 


18 


1 > 15° 




























1 , 200 


2 


1 








4 


9 


3 




4 


4 


20 


24 


1.250 














I 






1 




2 


2 


1.300 


1 










2 


I 






2 


2 


5 


7 


1. 3So 
















1 








1 


1 


1 ,400 


3 










3 








2 


I 


3 


6 


i.45o 










1 










1 




1 


2 


1,500 


1 












2 


1 


I 


2 


I 


7 


8 


1,550 




























1 , 600 


1 












I 






I 




2 


3 


1 , 650 




























1 , 700 


1 












I 










1 


2 


I.7SO 


1 
























1 


1 ,800 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 












I 


1 


6 


1.850 




























1 ,900 


1 




















I 


1 


2 


I.9SO 


1 
























1 


2 ,000 


3 










3 








I 




1 


4 


2,050 




























2 , IOO 




























2,150 




























2, 200 


I 










1 














1 


2 , 250 




























2,300 




























2,350 




























2 ,400 




























2,450-2,499 




























*2 , 500-2 , 549 


2 








1 


3 








3 




3 


6 




Median Salary, $1,116.66 


Median Salary, $807.. 





Median, 
$83914 



♦Three men received salaries of $3,600, $4,000, $4,500. 



Salaries 



101 



TABLE 11 SALARIES FOR PENMANSHIP SPECIALISTS. 1908 





Men 


Women 













"a 


•» 




II 


K § 


"3 


"3 


.^ 




Men 


Annual 




9 s 


■« 




-S'i 






,*j 




and 


Salary 




3| 
IS 


31 

<0 


5.5 

-*•§ 
a; 


s 


2 





^•1 





5-s 
< 




"0 

s 


Women 
Total 


$100-149 


1 












I 










I 


2 


150-199 


2 
























2 


200 




I 






















1 


250 




























300 


2 
























2 


3 5° 




























400 


1 
























1 


45° 


1 
















1 






I 


2 


5°° 














I 






2 




3 


3 


550 








1 


I 










1 




t 


3 


600 






I 


1 






4 






3 




7 


9 


650 


2 




I 








I 






2 




3 


6 


700 


1 












2 




1 


2 


I 


6 


7 


75° 


1 












I 






2 




3 


4 


800 


1 






4 




s 


2 






2 


I 


5 


IO 


850 








4 




4 










I 


1 


5 


900 


1 






2 




3 


2 




1 






3 


6 


950 


1 




I 






2 


I 










1 


3 


1 ,000 


2 


I 




1 


I 


5 


2 






2 


I 


5 


10 


1 ,050 


















1 




I 


2 


2 


1 , 100 


3 




I 


1 


I 


6 










I 


1 


7 


1 , 150 




























1 ,200 


4 


I 


I 


2 




8 


I 






1 




2 


IO 


1,250 








2 




2 














2 


1,300 


2 








I 


3 














3 


1,35° 


1 










1 














1 


1 ,400 


2 






1 


I 


4 














4 


i,450 


1 










1 














I 


1,500 


3 




2 






5 








1 




1 


6 


1,55° 




























1 , 600 


1 






1 




2 














2 


1,650 




























1 , 700 










I 


1 














1 


1,750 




























1 , 800 








1 




1 














1 


1,850 




























1 ,900 


1 










1 














1 


i.95o 




























2 ,000 


1 










1 














1 


2,050 




























2 , 100 




























3,150 




























2 , 200 








1 




1 














1 


2,250 




























3,300 




























3,350 




























2,400-2,459 




























2,500-2,499 






























M 


edian Salary, $i 


,104. 


16 


Median Salary, \ 


766.6 


6 


Median, 
$920.83 



102 



Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 



TABLE 12. SALARIES FOR MANUAL TRAINING SPECIALISTS. 1908 









M 


EN 




Women 




Annual 


si 


II 


1 


"3 
■s a 


.& 




si 




1 




■a s 


s 




Men 
and 


Salary 


^•1 


3-1 


1 § 
(0 5 


(5:1 


s 




3-§ 


3-i 


S| 


<S| 




Women 




*3 
I" 


1* 


I* 

I/) 


■s-i 


■§•1 


"3 




1* 




13 


II 


"0 


Total 


$100-149 


1 










1 












1 


150-199 




























200 




























250 




























300 




























35° 




1 








1 














1 


400 




























450 




























500 














1 




I 






2 


2 


55° 








4 




4 


1 






3 




4 


8 


600 




2 


1 






3 


2 






1 




3 


6 


650 


1 






3 




4 


3 






4 




7 


11 


700 








6 




6 


3 


1 




1 




5 


11 


75o 


1 


1 




1 


I 


4 


4 


1 




1 




6 


10 


800 


4 






10 


I 


15 


5 


1 








6 


21 


850 


1 






3 


I 


5 




1 


I 




1 


3 


8 


900 


4 


2 


1 


9 




16 


1 










1 


17 


95° 




1 




4 




5 


1 








1 


2 


7 


1 ,000 


6 


2 


4 


12 


3 


27 


4 






2 




6 


33 


i.oso 


1 






1 




2 


2 










2 


4 


1 , 100 


4 


2 


2 


2 


1 


11 














1 1 


1,150 


I 










1 














1 


1 , 200 


5 


2 


3 


6 


2 


18 


1 






2 




3 


21 


1.250 


1 






1 


1 


3 














3 


1,360 


6 




1 


1 




8 








1 




1 


9 


1,35° 










1 


1 














1 


1 ,400 


6 






5 


2 


13 








1 




1 


14 


I.450 








1 




1 














1 


r ,500 


7 


i 




2 


3 


13 








1 




1 


14 


i.SSo 










1 


1 














1 


1 , 600 


3 




2 


5 




10 














10 


1.650 






1 


4 


1 


6 














6 


1 . 700 


3 






1 




4 














4 


i,75o 


1 










1 














I 


1 ,800 








3 


1 


4 














4 


1.850 




























1 ,900 


2 








1 


3 














3 


i.95o 




























2 ,000 


2 






4 


1 


7 














7 


2,050 




























2, 100 


1 






1 


1 


3 














3 


2,150 




























2 , 200 




























2,250 




























2 ,300 




1 








1 














1 


2,350 




























2,400-2,449 










1 


1 














1 


2,449-2,500 




























*2, 500-2, 549 


1 






1 




2 














2 




M 


idian 


Salai 


y, $1 


,138.63 


Median Salary, 


S795- 


33 


Median, 
$1,039-39 





















* Five men received salaries of $2,600, $3,000, $3,500, $4,000 and $4,500. 



Salaries 



103 



TABLE 13. 



SALARIES FOR DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND SEWING 
SPECIALISTS. 1908 







Domestic Science 




Sewing 


Annual 
Salary 


si 

3 J 
1 


-2's; 
3 J 


1 

to 


1 

I 1 


s 


"0 




si 


"5 
■a s 

si 

r 


H 


■4 

s 

II 


"3 

3 


$100-149 














I 










1 


150-199 


























200 


























25° 














2 










2 


300 




I 








1 














35° 




















1 




1 


400 






I 


1 




2 














45° 


2 


2 








4 


2 


I 








3 


500 


2 






3 




5 


3 










3 


55o 
600 
650 


1 

7 

8 


4 


I 


4 
5 
5 




5 

17 
13 


3 
2 
4 


I 


1 


1 
2 


I 


4 
4 

7 


700 


7 


5 


I 


10 




23 


8 






2 




10 


75° 
800 
850 


3 

5 

1 


2 
1 
2 


I 


7 
4 
6 


2 

I 


14 
12 
1 1 


4 

1 


I 


2 


1 


2 


5 
4 
2 


900 


3 


1 


4 


8 


I 


17 


4 


2 


2 


1 




9 


95° 


2 






3 


I 


6 


I 










1 


1 ,000 


3 




2 


7 


4 


16 


I 






2 




3 


1 ,050 










I 


1 


I 










1 


1 , 100 


I 




1 


1 




3 














1.15° 


























1 , 200 


I 




1 


2 


4 


8 


I 






1 


I 


3 


i.*5° 


























1.300 


























1.350 








1 


1 


2 














1 , 400 


2 






2 


1 


5 














1.450 


























1 ,500 














2 








I 


3 


i.55o 
1 , 600 




1 








1 












1 , 650 


























1 , 700 










1 


1 














1.750 
1 ,800 


























1,850 


























1 ,900 










1 


1 














i.95o 


























2,000 


























2,050 


























2 , 100 


























2, 150 


























a , 200 


























2,250 


























2,300 


























2.3SO 


























2 ,400 










1 


1 














2,450-2,499 


























*2, 500-2, 549 


I 










1 


I 








1 






Media 


n Sala 


ry, $80 


4.16 




Median Salary, $742.80 



* One woman received a salary of $4,500. 



io4 



Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 



TABLE 14. SALARIES FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION SPECIALISTS. 1908 





Men 


Women 




Annual 
Salary 


II 
t-8 


8 § 

-2's; 
3-1 


"a 


"3 
I* 

"a a 
5-2 


Q 
s 




i s 

3-i 




| 


1 


s 




Men 

AND 

Women 







in 


3-i 

10 




|| 






in 


18 








1 


Total 


$110-149 












1 






1 


150-200 




























200 


1 






1 




2 














2 


250 




























300 














1 










1 


1 


350 














1 










1 


1 


400 














2 










2 


2 


4SO 




















1 




1 


1 


500 


2 










2 


1 


1 




1 


I 


4 


6 


550 








2 




2 


2 






2 




4 


6 


600 














2 






2 




4 


4 


650 














2 






2 




4 


4 


700 








1 




I 


3 


1 




2 




6 


7 


75° 








1 




I 


2 










2 


3 


800 








1 




I 


3 






2 


I 


6 


7 


850 










1 


I 


1 


2 




2 




5 


6 


900 


1 






3 


1 


5 


1 








I 


2 


7 


95° 














2 










2 


2 


1 ,000 


1 




1 


4 


1 


7 


5 








I 


6 


13 


1,050 




























1 , 100 


1 






2 




3 


1 










1 


4 


i, 150 


1 










1 














I 


1 , 200 






1 


1 


1 


3 


3 






1 




4 


7 


1.250 




























1,300 






1 


3 




4 














4 


i.35o 




























1 ,400 


1 


1 






1 


3 


1 








I 


2 


5 


I.450 








1 




1 














1 


1,500 


2 


1 




1 


1 


5 








3 




3 


8 


i.55o 




























1 , 600 


1 






1 




2 




1 








1 


3 


1,650 




























1 , 700 










1 


1 














1 


1.750 




























1 , 800 


1 






1 




2 














2 


1,850 




























1 ,900 




























1.950 




























2 ,000 


1 










1 














1 


2,050 




























2 , 100 




























2, 150 




























2 , 200 




























2,250 




























2 ,300 




























2,350 




























2,350 




























2 ,400-2 ,449 








1 




1 














1 


2,450-2,499 




























*2, 500-2 ,599 






























Median Salary, $1,141. 


66 


Median Salary, $80 


8.33 


Median, 
$932.14 



♦Two men received salaries of $3,000, one man $4,000 and one man $4,500. 



Salaries 



105 



TABLE 15. COMBINED SUMMARY OF MEDIAN ANNUAL 
SALARIES. 1908 



Subject 



Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Manual Training . . 
Physical Education 
Domestic Science . . 
Sewing 



Men 



>i,oo9.37 
1,116.66 
1,104 • 16 
1,138.63 
1,141 .66 



W< 



$748.38 
807 .50 
766.66 
795.83 
803.33 
804 . 16 
742 .So 



Men and 
Women 



$827.84 
839.14 
920 .83 

I.Q39-39 
932.14 



The distribution of salaries in the foregoing tables reveals 
the fact that male specialists are paid the lowest median sal- 
aries in music and the highest in physical education and manual 
training. Women receive the lowest median salaries in sewing 
and music and the highest in drawing and domestic science. 
When the median salaries are considered irrespective of sex, 
it is found that the salary of the specialist in music is least, 
while that for manual training is highest. However, there is 
a striking uniformity of price irrespective of differences in 
subject for each sex, which indicates that the salary is adjusted 
on a basis of sex rather than on the basis of the subject. 

The most common salary for men and women is found in 
the $1,000 to $1,049 group. 



CHAPTER X 



SEX SELECTION 



The information upon which the following table is based was 
secured in connection with the information in salaries; conse- 
quently it includes data for the same number of specialists. This 
data were distributed by subject and by location, the classification 
used by the United States Bureau of Education being used. 
The gross figures are given in section (a) of Table 15; section 
(b) is deduced from section (a) and represents the percentage 
of female specialists in each subject and in each section of 
the United States. 

TABLE 16. SEX SELECTION. 1908 

(a). Distribution of men and women, by subjects and location. 

(b). Percentage of women specialists, distributed by subjects and location. 





North 

Atlantic 

States 


South 

Atlantic 

States 


South 
Central 

States 


North 
Central 
States 


Western 
States 


United 

States 

as a whole 




1) 

a 
S 

105 

37 

35 
65 

15 


S 

4) 

Pm 

113 
149 
18 
28 
41 
5° 
34 


O 
H 

218 
186 
53 
93 
41 
50 
49 


04 

s 

4 

4 

3 

IS 

2 


6 

&> 

Ph 

17 
13 

4 

5 

19 

5 


O 
fcH 

21 
17 

3 
19 

S 
19 


7 

2 

7 

16 

3 


E 

23 
27 

4 

2 

5 

14 


O 

;~ 
3° 

2Q 

1 1 

18 

5 

14 


V 

"3 

55 
15 
22 
91 

26 


6 

fa 

131 

136 
18 

17 
11 
69 
18 




e- 

186 

151 
40 

108 
11 
60 
44 


_5j 

9 

5 

6 

23 

7 


5 

0) 

fa 

28 
32 

6 
2 

5 

10 

5 


O 
H 

37 
37 
12 
25 
5 
19 
12 


S 

180 
63 

73 
210 

53 


S 

fa 

312 
357 
46 
53 
67 
171 
62 





(a) 

Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship. . . . 
Manual Training 

Sewing 

Domestic Sci . . . 
Physical Edu. . . 


492 

420 
119 
263 
67 
171 

us 


(b) 

Penmanship. . . . 
Manual Training 

Sewing 

Domestic Sci . . . 
Physical Edu. . . 


51.83 
80 . 10 
33-94 
30. 10 
100 .00 
100 . 00 
69.38 


80.9s 
76.47 
10 . 00 
21 .05 
too .00 
100 . 00 
71.42 


76.66 
93. 10 
36.33 
11 . 11 

100 .00 

100 .00 

.00 


70-43 
90 .06 
45.00 
15.74 

100 .00 

100 .00 

40 . 90 


7567 

86.48 

50 .00 

8.00 

100 .00 

100 . 00 

41 . 66 


63.41 
85 .00 
38.6s 
20 . 14 
100 .00 
100 .00 
54.78 



Attention is directed to the fact that eighty-five per cent of 
the drawing specialists are women compared with sixty-three 
per cent for music. It is also of interest to note that there are 
proportionally fewer women in music in the North Atlantic 
States than elsewhere. Relatively few women are employed as 

106 



Sex Selection 107 

penmanship specialists. While the number of women engaged 
in manual training is small yet the percentage for women is 
larger in this subject than the percentage of men in drawing; 
in other words drawing is more nearly the exclusive field of 
women than is manual training of men. This is especially true 
of the North Atlantic States. 



CHAPTER XI 
DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITY 

It has seemed desirable to take some steps in order to ascer- 
tain within certain limits the division of responsibility between 
the specialists and the regular teachers. With this in mind the 
following inquiry was inaugurated. 

A return postal card was submitted to a group of specialists 
in each subject selected at random. This random selection was 
secured by sending an inquiry to every other specialist in each 
subject whose city appeared on the classification sheets used in 
preparing the tables for Chapters VIII, IX, and X. The in- 
formation card read thus : 

Subject supervised Annual Salary Sex 

Check (X) the method which most nearly describes yours. 
( ) a. Special subject taught entirely by regular teacher. 
( ) b. New material taught by yourself or assistants at regular intervals, 

followed by a drill on the same by the regular teacher. 
( ) c. Special subject entirely under your charge and all lessons given 

by yourself or assistants. 

Three hundred and forty-three replies were received from 
the nine hundred and ninety-eight cards sent out. Of this num- 
ber twenty-five were discarded on account of indefinite response. 
There remained three hundred and eighteen replies that were 
clearly answered. These were distributed as follows : eighty- 
three represented specialists in music; eighty-six in drawing; 
eighteen in penmanship ; twenty- four in physical education ; fifty- 
eight in manual training; thirty-three in domestic science and 
sixteen in sewing. It is thus seen that the returns were related 
somewhat closely to the number of specialists in each field. 

These answers for each subject were thus distributed for 
method and size of cities. 

108 



Division of Responsibility 



109 



TABLE 17. SHOWING DIFFERENCE IN DIVISION OF 
RESPONSIBILITY. 1910 



(1) 

Size of City 

Plan 


Music 


Drawing 


Penmanship 


Physical 
Education 


A. B. C. 


A. B. C. 


A. B. C. 


A. B. C. 


8- 10,000 

10- 15,000 

15- 20,000 

20- 30,000 

30— 50,000 

50—100 ,000 

100—200,000 

200—1 ,000 ,000 

1,000,000 and over 


8 2 
17 2 

1 10 1 

2 7 
362 
2 9 

2 2 

4 1 I 

1 


1 6 3 

1 19 2 

6 1 

1 9 1 

14 

2 61 
1 1 
252 

2 


1 

4 1 
1 1 
2 1 

3 

1 
1 
2 


2 
1 

1 1 
2 

3 

3 1 
2 8 



Size of City 

Plan 


Manual 
Training 


Domestic 
Science 


Sewing 


A. B. C. 


A. B. C. 


A. B. C. 


8— 10,000 

10- 15,000' 

15- 20,000 

20- 30,000 

30, 50,000 

50-100 ,000 

100—200 ,000 

200-1 ,000 ,000 

1,000,000 and over 


1 8 
6 

3 
1 1 4 

1 3 3 
2 12 

1 4 

» 5 
1 1 


4 
4 
2 

3 
4 4 

4 
1 2 

4 

1 


1 

1 1 

3 

2 4 
1 1 
1 1 



(2) 



Combining Irrespective of 
Size of Cities 



Plan 



Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical Education 
Manual Training . . 
Domestic Science. . 
Sewing 



A. 



14 



B. 



61 
68 
M 

2C 

8 
5 
4 



Total 



83 
86 
18 
24 
58 

33 
16 



(3). Percentage of Cities 
Following Plan C 



Music 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Physical Education. 
Manual Training . . . 
Domestic Science. . . 
Sewing 



Per cent 



8 

79 
84 
62 



Discussion 

The meaning of this table becomes clear when read as fol- 
lows: In cities of 8,000 to 10,000 population, eight specialists 
in music used plan B, which reads " new material taught by 
yourself at regular intervals followed by a drill on the same 



no Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

by the regular teacher." In two cities of this size plan C 
was followed : " special subject entirely taught under your charge 
and all lessons given by yourself or assistants." A study of 
this table reveals the fact that more cities report the use of 
plan A, " special subject taught entirely by the regular teacher " 
in the case of music than in any other subject. It is significant 
that out of fifty cities with a population of less than 30,000 only 
three report the use of this plan while in eleven of the thirty- 
three cities with a population above 30,000, plan A most nearly 
describes the division of responsibility. These figures indicate 
the degree of fusion which has taken place in regard to music 
and reveals the fact that the larger cities, which were the first 
to introduce the subject, were likewise the first to consider the 
teaching of music a regular duty of the regular teacher. This 
conclusion is also confirmed by the fact that the majority of 
cities which reported the use of plan C were small cities. The 
same general situation exists in the case of drawing. Out of 
sixty-four cities with a population of less than 50,000 only three 
follow plan A, while in the twenty-two cities with a population 
of 50,000 or over, five report the use of this plan. As in the 
case of music the majority of the cities using plan C have a 
small population. 

Reference to section three of the foregoing table shows in 
another way the small proportion of the specialists in music 
and drawing who are assuming the entire responsibility for 
this instruction. Only nine and six-tenths per cent of the music 
and eleven and six-tenths per cent of the drawing specialists 
report the use of this plan — C. While these figures are not con- 
clusive they certainly point to the question in regard to future 
development. Will the plan of administration which has been 
developed in the larger cities work down into the smaller cities 
as well as the addition to the curriculum? Do not these figures 
indicate that ultimately the regular teacher will bear the re- 
sponsibility for instruction in music and drawing as well as the 
so-called regular subjects? 

The close relation of writing to the daily work of the school 
has forced the regular teacher to assume this as one of her 
own burdens. This is evidenced by the fact that there are so 
few specialists in penmanship employed. The eighteen replies 



Division of Responsibility 1 1 1 

received indicate that plan B prevails in this subject. Plan B 
is also predominant in the case of physical education. 

In manual training, domestic science and sewing we find a 
decided contrast in method. Here plan C is the typical one 
employed. Section 3 of the table, which shows the percentage 
of cities following plan C brings out this fact even in more 
striking contrast than does the simple distribution. The per- 
centage in the case of music, drawing, penmanship, and physical 
education, ranges from eight and three-tenths to eleven and six- 
tenths per cent, while for manual training, domestic science, and 
sewing, the comparative range is from sixty-two and five-tenths 
to eighty-four and eight-tenths per cent. This clearly points to 
the isolation of these subjects so far as the regular teacher is 
concerned. 

Summary 

Summarizing, the prevailing mode for music, drawing, pen- 
manship, and physical education is a varying plan of joint re- 
sponsibility. In respect to music and drawing there is a clear 
tendency toward the special subject being entirely taught by 
the regular teacher. For manual training, domestic science, and 
sewing, the mode is clearly that of plan C in which the regular 
teacher has no share of responsibility. 



CHAPTER XII 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 

Sanctions 

Reference to the introduction to this book reveals the fact 
that this study was undertaken with the view of securing infor- 
mation on a set of definite topics, the first of which related 
to the sanctions back of the introduction of the subjects under 
consideration. It is inevitable that in any widespread move- 
ment different people advocate the same thing for different pur- 
poses, so that any single statement of sanctions must be con- 
sidered as typical rather than inclusive. The evidence pre- 
sented in the early chapters indicates that the following were 
the typical sanctions for the various subjects. The religious and 
social sanction was operative in the case of music. The need 
for an artisan trained in industrial art in order to improve 
the finished product of the manufactures furnished the sanction 
for drawing. Manual training came as a result of about the 
same type of agitation and as far as the general public was 
concerned, it had an industrial sanction. However, the belief 
in " creative activity " furnished an additional educational sanc- 
tion wholly apart from the one mentioned above. Domestic 
science came into the schools with a statement of practical neces- 
sity of teaching the girls how to work. This was interpreted 
from both the economic and social standpoint. The " creative 
activity " idea was operative to a limited degree as a justifica- 
tion of the work considered as manual training for girls. Con- 
cern for bodily welfare was the sanction for the widespread in- 
troduction of physical education, while penmanship took its place 
as a fundamental part of the curriculum under the commercial 
sanction. 

Origin of Demand 

The second topic in the introduction was " to ascertain if 
possible whether the demand for these subjects came from within 



Summary and Conclusion 113 

the school itself, or whether it came from the social group out- 
side." We have seen that the pressure which brought about 
the introduction of music was generated by the organization 
of public sentiment by people outside the school. The rapid 
introduction of drawing was traced to the influence of the public 
opinion directed by the manufacturers of Massachusetts and else- 
where. Economic and humanitarian forces united in consciously 
creating a pressure which resulted in the introduction of manual 
training and domestic science. The sudden rise in interest in 
physical education in the early nineties was traced to the organ- 
ized activities of the German Turners, the Christian Association 
and private munificence. While penmanship had a special value 
within the schoolroom, it did not take its place as a sine qua 
non until pressure was brought to bear from outside agitation. 
All of this is a striking commentary on the character of the 
school as a public institution and on its responsiveness to public 
opinion and certainly points clearly to the conclusion that these 
modifications in the curriculum have largely come from without 
rather than from within the school group. The administrator 
who aspires to genuine leadership in school affairs surely can- 
not afford to neglect the conscious organization of public senti- 
ment as one of his most powerful means of attainment of ends. 
The school is being constantly subjected to outside pressure 
and the superintendent must either yield to these forces or 
direct them. It is true that the factor of imitation has been 
operative in the later introduction so that in many cases the 
desire to be " abreast of the times " has brought about the intro- 
duction of new subject matter irrespective of the fact that there 
was neither a public demand for this nor a clear conception of 
the purpose involved. However, since this refers to the later 
development, it does not affect the conclusions above. 

Typical Ways in Which the New Subject Matter Becomes Part 
of the Curriculum 

Another topic was : " To point out certain typical ways in 
which new subject matter comes into the curriculum." We 
have seen the organized efforts of the Boston Academy of 
Music; the petition of the Massachusetts manufacturers, urging 
legislation relative to drawing, the New York Industrial Educa- 



ii4 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

tion Association spreading the propaganda for manual training 
and domestic science; the German Turners and others putting 
forth the claims for physical education. We have likewise noted 
that in almost every instance the expense of the initial experiment 
was borne by these organizations. After a further preparation of 
the public mind and proving the possibility of the venture, the 
second step was to effect joint control between the advocates 
of the new movement and the regular school authorities, fol- 
lowed by the complete adoption at public expense. In view of 
the facts presented in this study it would seem quite possible 
to introduce almost anything into the schools provided a few 
influential people became sufficiently interested to furnish the 
necessary funds for the development of public sentiment. This 
plan has met with uniform success in the past irrespective of 
the subject involved or the size of the city. 

Refraction within the Schoolroom 

The fourth problem was " to determine the effect of the tradi- 
tions of the school on the interpretation of the subject matter." 
We have seen the attempt to interpret music on the basis of its 
training for the general " intellectual faculty " to the detriment 
of the real spirit of song. Drawing was in like manner sub- 
jected to a modification and the industrial phase was supplanted 
by emphasis on the intellectual and aesthetic values. The man- 
ual training was interpreted on the basis of an educational value 
quite at variance with the industrial purpose of the outside 
forces that were so aggressive in its behalf. Domestic science 
came in for a limited share of this " educational " interpretation 
though the practical value were so imminent that there was less 
of it than in the case of manual training. Physical education 
was to a large degree interpreted as " training for the will." 
The implication in instruction in penmanship has been so clear 
that there has been little refraction within the schoolroom. All 
in all we are forced to the conclusion that even though the 
public may create a pressure sufficiently strong to place a new 
subject within the curriculum, there is no guarantee that this 
subject will be interpreted in accordance with the popular de- 
mand. The traditions of the school are so powerful that the 
response to the outside pressures is made in conformity with 



Summary and Conclusion 115 

existing standards. If the new demand represents a wide vari- 
ance from the existing standard the refraction is correspondingly 
wide. The school has been identified with purely intellectual 
activity for so long a time that any demand outside of this field 
is extremely liable to be misinterpreted. 

Spread of the Practice 

Another topic for investigation was : " to determine certain 
quantitative aspects of the problem including the distribution 
of specialists for subject, location, salary, sex and division of 
responsibility." Relative to distribution for subject, it was found 
that in cities of the United States with 8,000 or more inhabi- 
tants in 1908, eighty-five per cent reported the employment of 
specialists for music; seventy-six per cent for drawing; twenty- 
one per cent for penmanship; forty-three per cent for manual 
training ; nineteen per cent for sewing ; thirty per cent for domes- 
tic science; and twenty per cent for physical education. Com- 
pared with earlier reports these figures indicate that there has 
been a remarkable growth in the practice in connection with 
music, drawing and manual training in recent years. During 
about the same period penmanship and physical education barely 
held their own as subjects for " special " treatment. 

The practice of employing specialists spread much more 
quickly in the north than in the south, and in the larger city 
than in the smaller city. The later tables show the growth in 
the other sections of the country and in the smaller cities. On 
the whole this adjustment has come first where the demand was 
the greatest. The public schools in the North have occupied 
until recently a much larger field of social responsibility than 
have the public schools of the South. 

The very sanctions back of the introduction of several of 
these subjects were interwoven with the problems arising in 
connection with life in the large cities, so it is not surprising 
to find that the practice of employing specialists spread from 
the large city to the small city. 

Salaries 

The study has brought out the fact that the median salary 
paid to men in each subject was considerably in excess of that 



u6 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

paid to women ; for example, the median annual salary for men 
and women in music was $1,009.37 and $748.38 respectively; for 
drawing, $1,116.66 for men and $807.50 for women; for pen- 
manship, $1,104.16 for men, $766.66 for women; for manual 
training, $1,138.63 for men, and $795.88 for women; for physi- 
cal education, $1,141.66 for men, and $803.33 f° r women. The 
whole distribution indicated that the difference in salary was 
determined by sex rather than by subject. Music specialists 
received the lowest salaries both for men and for women with 
the exception of sewing, which was slightly lower than music, but 
there were comparatively few specialists in sewing employed. 
There was no striking difference in the salaries paid in the 
various parts of the United States. 

Sex 

The distribution for sex revealed the fact that women have 
been largely selected for certain subjects, while men predominate 
in others : for example, eighty-five per cent of the drawing 
specialists were women while only sixty-three per cent of the 
music specialists were women. Penmanship selected a surpris- 
ingly large percentage of men, while one-fifth of the specialists 
in manual training were women. Thus there was a larger pro- 
portion of female specialists in manual training than male 
specialists in drawing. The largest percentage of male music 
specialists was found in the North Atlantic States. 

Division of Responsibility 

The inquiry in regard to the relative responsibility borne by 
the regular teacher and the specialist in connection with the 
subjects considered, brought out rather clearly the typical meth- 
ods for each. The typical method in music, drawing, penman- 
ship and physical education is " new material taught by special- 
ists at regular intervals followed by drill on the same by the 
regular teacher." In the larger cities there is a clear tendency 
to shift this responsibility in the cases of music and drawing so 
that these special subjects are taught entirely by the regular 
teacher. The typical method in manual training, domestic science 
and sewing is " special subjects entirely under the charge of 



Summary and Conclusion 117 

specialists and all lessons given by specialist." The slight tend- 
ency away from this method toward one in which the regular 
teacher has a share of responsibility is confined almost wholly 
to the large cities. 



APPENDIX I 

INFORMATION CARD 

Teachers College, New York, N. Y. 

December 1st, 1910. 
Dear Superintendent: 

I am making a study of the salaries, sexes, and the increase in the 
number of Supervisors of Special Subjects since 1875. My material, 
which has been gathered from government reports and various directories, 
includes almost 500 cities. In checking up, I find that the data from your 
city, however, are not in satisfactory form. Will you kindly furnish me 
the facts for 1908 on the attached card? 

Very truly, 



(Return Card) 



City State 

Report for 1908 (cross out subjects not especially supervised). 

Supervisor of Music Sex Annual Salary $. . . . 

" Drawing " " " $ . . . . 

" " Penmanship " " " $ . . . . 

" Physical Culture " " " $ 

" " Manual Training " " " $ . . . . 

" Domestic Science " " " $. . . . 

" Sewing " " $ . . . . 

Answered by Date 



Il8 



APPENDIX II 



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APPENDIX III 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Music 
American Music. One volume in series of American History and History 

and Encyclopedia of Music. Irving Squire. Toledo, 1908. 
Boston. Report of the School Committee. 1874. 

Clark, Hannah B. Public Schools of Chicago. Thesis for the doctor- 
ate, University of Chicago, 1902. 
Dexter, Edwin G. History of Education in the United States. New 

York: Macmillan Company, 1906. 
Eaton, John. The Study of Music in the Public Schools. U. S. Bureau 

of Education, Bulletin No. 1, 1886. 
Elson, Charles Lewis. National Music of America and Its Sources. 

Boston : L. C. Page and Co., 1900. 
Hood, G. History of Music in New England. 1846. 
Kandel, I. L. Training of Elementary Teachers in Germany. Teachers 

College Contribution to Education, No. 31, 1910. 
Manchester, Arthur L. Music Education in the United States. U. S. 

Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 4, 1908. 
Payne, Bruce R. Elementary School Curriculum. Boston: Silver, Bur- 

dett & Co., 1905. 
Proceedings of the American Institute of Instruction. 1830. 
Proceedings of National Education Association. 
United States, Reports of the Commissioner of Education. 

Drawing 
Augsbury, D. R. Drawing in General Education. Education, vol. XVII, 

304. 

Barnard. American Journal of Education, vol. II, III, VI, VIII, X, 
XVII, XXI. 

Barr, Ferree. Art for the Schoolroom. Education, vol. XVII, I. 

Boston. Report of School Committee, 1852, 56, 58, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74. 

Clark, Isaac Edwards. Art and Industrial Education. In Butler, Edu- 
cation in the U. S. II, 705-67. 

. Drawing in the Public Schools. U. S. Bureau of Education. 

1885. 

. Industrial and Manual Training. U. S. Bureau of Education. 



1892. 
Connecticut. Common School Journal, vol. I, 1838. 
Council of Supervisors of Manual Arts. Yearbook, 1906. 
120 



Bibliography 121 

Cubberley, E. C. Some Changing Conceptions of Education. Boston : 
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Drawing. Compilation of Articles on Subject published as a Massachu- 
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Eastern Art Teachers' Association. 1903. 

Franklin, Benjamin. Proposals Relating to Education, in Smith, Life 
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Horace Mann. Life and Works. III. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1891. 

Massachusetts. Reports of Board of Education, i860 to 1680. 

New Haven. Report of Public Schools, 1874-75. 

Proceedings of National Education Association. 

Schneider, H. G. Drawing in New York Public Schools. Education, 
vol. XVII, 204. 

United States, Reports of Commissioner of Education. 

Manual Training 

Barrows, Isabel. Conference on Manual Training. Boston, 1891. 
Boston. Report of School Committee, 1882, 1883, 1884. 
Brown, Elmer E. Making of Our Middle Schools. New York: Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1902. 
Carlton, Frank Tracy. Economic Influences on Education. New York : 

York : Macmillan Company, 1908. 
Circular of Information. No. 2, 1889. U. S. Bureau of Education. 
Clark, Isaac Edwards. Art and Industry. Part I, II, III, and IV. 

1885-1889. U. S. Bureau of Education. 
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Macmillan Company, 1906. 
Eastern Art Teachers' Association, 1903. 
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Ham, Chas. H. Manual Training. New York: Harper & Bro., 1886. 
McArthur, Arthur. Education in its Relation to Manual Industry. 

New York: Appleton & Co., 1884. 
Princeton Review, 1883. 

Proceedings of Eastern Manual Arts Association, 1905-6. 
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Report, Commission on Industrial Education made to Legislature of 

Pennsylvania. 
United States, Reports of Commissioner of Education. 
Woodward, C. M. The Manual Training School. New York: Chas. 

Scribners' Sons, 1896. 



122 Social Factors Affecting Special Supervision 

Domestic Science 

Barnard. American Journal of Education, 1869. 

Boston. Report of School Committee, 1869-1870. 

Carlton, Frank Tracy. Economic Influences on Education. New York : 

Macmillan Company, 1908. 
Clark, Isaac Edwards. Art and Industry. Part I, 1885, 1400 pages. 

U. S. Bureau of Education. 
1 . Art and Industry. Part II, 1892, 1338 pages. U. S. Bureau of 

Education. 
Dean. Worker and the State. New York: Century Co., igio. 
English Board of Education, Special Report. London, 1905. 
Harley. History of Public Education Association of Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia. 
Massachusetts. Report of Board of Education, 1879. 
New Bedford, Massachusetts. Report of Public School, 1879-1887. 
New Haven. Report of Public Schools, 1888. 
Philbrick, John. Circular of Information, No. 1, 1885, U. S. Bureau 

of Education. 
Proceedings, National Education Association, 1887 to present date. 
Report, Commission on Industrial Education made to Legislature Penn- 
sylvania, Harrisburg, 1889. 
Reports of Lake Placid Conference. 
United States Commissioner of Education. U. S. Bureau of Education, 

1887. 

Physical Education 

Alcott, W. A. American Institute of Instruction, 1830. 

American Physical Education Review. 

Barnard. American Journal of Education, vols. XIV, XV, XXV. 

Boykin, J. C. Physical Training, Report Commissioner of Education. 

U. S. Bureau of Education, 1891-92, vol. I, pages 451-594. 
Gulick, L. Proceedings American Association for Advancement of 

Physical Education, 189. 
Hartwell, E. M. Report, Director Physical Training, Boston School 

Document No. 4, 1895. 
. Physical Training in American Colleges. U. S. Bureau of 

Education, Circular of Information, No. 5, 1885. 
. Proc. American Association for Advancement of Physical Edu- 



cation, 1892. 

Hinsdale, B. A. Commissioners of Education, Report, U. S. Bureau of 
Education. 

McCurdy, J. H. Physical Training in Public Schools. American Physi- 
cal Education Review, X. 

Proceedings, International Congress of Education, Chicago, 1903. 

Proceedings, National Educational Association, 1891 to present date. 

Shotwell. Schools of Cincinnati, Cincinnati. 



Bibliography 123 

Penmanship 
Barnard. American Journal of Education, vols. II, IV, V, XXVIII. 
Brown, Elmer E. Making of our Middle Schools. New York: Long- 
mans, Green & Co., 1006. 
Ellsworth, H. W. Essentials of Penmanship. New York, 1878. 
Horace Mann. Annual Reports, III, IV, VI, VII, Boston. 
Shotwell. Schools of Cincinnati, Cincinnati. 



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